Honors Essays
Throughout the honors portion of Humanities, we completed a series of essays regarding United States history. Here you will find each of my essays. If you click the green titles, you will jump to that essay on this webpage; if you would like to be redirected to the original GoogleDoc file, click the essay topic in gray.
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Honors Essay 14
Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Clinton Part 1 |
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Honors Essay 1 - Contact
The world as we know it, is cultured around individualism and self thinking. However, before the deployment of the Crusades during the dark ages, everyday life was determined by the church. The presumption of the church was suffering in your current life to find contentment and prosperity in your second heavenly world after death. It proposed that people should rely on divinity rather than rational or factual thinking. However, when the church heard of war in their holy land, they formed the military campaign known as the Crusades. Although their religion deemed travel as a luxury of the second world, the Crusades were sent away to oppugn and fight a religious war in Jerusalem. As one would expect, the travels of the Crusades brought upon unknown worldly cultures to the men, which opposed the religious views of the church. Moreover, the exposure of modern thinking such as philosophy, math, science, and life in one world made the Crusades question the methods of their church upon arrival home; for they would eventually change the entire foundation of trust towards religious systems, and their previously known way of life during the dark ages.
This development of cultural living and scientific attitudes was known as the Enlightenment, brought on directly from the travels of the Crusades, and acted as the end of the Dark Ages. The idea of waiting to savor life until the next world was fading, faith in religion was fleeting, and philosophical learnings were beginning to flourish. The idea of living in “the now”, and opening up closed minds was the start of an age of exploration. Truth behind life was being obtained through studies and discoveries, rather than presumed facts, and traveling the world was the next step to exploration and the expansion of knowledge.
During a time when innovations hadn’t yet succeeded boats and foot travel, world-wide exploration was a difficult task. Through Asia, was the Silk Road known for trading and travel purposes, connecting the east and west. One of the major powers of the world, the Republic of Venice, held a key role in the spice trade; however, when the Silk Road was was blocked by the Ottoman Empire taking over Constantinople, access to the east became almost impossible. The only other known possible route involved sailing around the bottom of Africa to the east. This proved to be a lengthy and excessively out of the way method for reaching the eastern lands. This inconvenient course acted as a catalyst to Christopher Columbus’ attempt to find a quicker route to China and India by going “around” the world to the west, eventually landing him in the New World.
The Spanish crown interpreted Christopher Columbus’ idea to reach the east as a chance to participate in the trading economy. When he arrived at the land for which he believe to be India, hence the term Indians, he became aware of the fact that he hadn’t reached his hopeful destination at all. Instead, he had stumbled upon the New World, which was already inhabited by Native Americans. Because the original goal of his expedition was for commerce, Christopher Columbus was ultimately there to acquire gold and treasures, whether it be from India or the New World. This mindset led to extreme brutality from Columbus’ Spanish men towards the Native Americans. This inhumanity took the form of shooting first, and asking questions later, only to justify their actions with the use of the Spanish Inquisition. The Spanish Inquisition and the reconquest of Spain proved to be the two main reasons for their savagery towards the Native Americans. Today, Indians in Mexico are found to still be treated crudely, quite similarly to the ways the Spanish treated the Native Americans during the Spanish Inquisition. Mexico’s government still favors conformity towards the more powerful, leaving indigenous people left to their own unwanted outland communities to fend for themselves, without being officially recognized as a citizen of Mexico.
Unlike the Spanish, the English’s arrival in the New World was for land rather than gold. England’s intentions were to continue to strengthen their empire, and expand their power over the world. Although the English were much kinder to the native people of the land, they still had ulterior motives that didn’t coexist with the lives of the Native Americans. Instead of killing them all, they sanctioned them to reservations. Today, Indian reservations still exist, and the United States recognizes them as citizens on the country.
When the French first sailed towards the New World, they expressed motives of trade, and a colonial mentality similar to the English. They co-existed with the natives more effectively because they weren’t looking to obtain their land or freedom. Eventually, the French were able to strike up a very successful trade of fur, and make the act of colonization very profitable. In todays world, natives are given first nation statuses in Canada, and are treated with respect and citizenship.
Stemming from the expedition for new land by the English, the first colony emerged on the banks of the James River, in modern day Virginia. This colony, named Jamestown, was founded on May 4th, 1607 by the Virginia Company of London.
Jamestown was founded as a business venture by a corporate company, and was hopeful to become a profit towards the organization and King James l. Many of the colonists were “gentleman” who had invested in the project, and were looking for a currency return in gold. The motives of the Jamestown colonists were severely different from those of the Plymouth colony, because of their lust for money rather than expansion.
Years after the development of Jamestown, Plymouth was created as the second successful English colony. Founded by English Separatist Puritans in December of 1620, Plymouth was settled in modern day Massachusetts, rather than the south near Jamestown.
Plymouth was founded by English settlers who had broken away from the Church of England. Unlike Jamestown, these colonists were motivated by religious freedom, and independence, rather than gold. Later known as pilgrims, these colonists looked for life in Plymouth. Here, they could practice free religion, and live a life away from the control of the English.
Both of these colonies were formed because of England’s previously mentioned thirst for more land; for this land would make the difference behind innovation and the expansion of English power. Though they were built on the same vague premises, there are many differences between the two colonies. Compared to Jamestown, Plymouth was much more prepared to create a successful colony. This was because Plymouth carried the motive of God rather than being a point of business. The two main motives seen between these two colonies are God and gold. The motive of God, implies lively ideals such as love, freedom, happiness, individual initiative and liberty over gold and resource development. Gold insinuates resource development, and commerce over free life values.
The original Plymouth principles are still extremely evident in the current and past views of the Northern States. Originally from the Puritans who grew discontent with the church of England, the Puritan values of the north served as their morality. These values were based upon hard work, strict moral conduct, original sin, careful watch, predestination, and belief in the bible and ministers. Between God and gold, the north favored god, and life fulfillment. Today, Puritan values aren’t drilled into us as the rules for which we follow. Instead, they’re contained deep into our minds, and act as the basis of our emotions, judgment, behaviors, and manners, regardless of religion.
The Jamestown principles were very evident in the Southern States, even in our current state of history. These values reflect that respect, honor, and social status is defined by wealth, and placement on the socioeconomic scale. Between God and gold, the south excessively favors gold. These two differences in life values between the north and the south are believed to be the basis for the eventual civil war, and a premise for all conflicts between.
One modern day example of the colonial values of God versus gold, is in the topic of our two main political parties in the Unites States. The Democratic party reflects the views of the north during colonization. In the north, they believed in individualism, and being treated based on the person you are or want to be. In the democratic party, they deem that taxes should be calculated by your income, and that society should be based off community and social responsibilities. On the other hand, the Republican party represents the business oriented south. Republicans believe that no one should pay extra taxes, making taxation equal among the population. This is based on the values of individual rights and justice, making them favor the values of gold rather than God. These values from our original colonies still remain with the current world, always turning us back to our roots, and the beginning of our history.
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The world as we know it, is cultured around individualism and self thinking. However, before the deployment of the Crusades during the dark ages, everyday life was determined by the church. The presumption of the church was suffering in your current life to find contentment and prosperity in your second heavenly world after death. It proposed that people should rely on divinity rather than rational or factual thinking. However, when the church heard of war in their holy land, they formed the military campaign known as the Crusades. Although their religion deemed travel as a luxury of the second world, the Crusades were sent away to oppugn and fight a religious war in Jerusalem. As one would expect, the travels of the Crusades brought upon unknown worldly cultures to the men, which opposed the religious views of the church. Moreover, the exposure of modern thinking such as philosophy, math, science, and life in one world made the Crusades question the methods of their church upon arrival home; for they would eventually change the entire foundation of trust towards religious systems, and their previously known way of life during the dark ages.
This development of cultural living and scientific attitudes was known as the Enlightenment, brought on directly from the travels of the Crusades, and acted as the end of the Dark Ages. The idea of waiting to savor life until the next world was fading, faith in religion was fleeting, and philosophical learnings were beginning to flourish. The idea of living in “the now”, and opening up closed minds was the start of an age of exploration. Truth behind life was being obtained through studies and discoveries, rather than presumed facts, and traveling the world was the next step to exploration and the expansion of knowledge.
During a time when innovations hadn’t yet succeeded boats and foot travel, world-wide exploration was a difficult task. Through Asia, was the Silk Road known for trading and travel purposes, connecting the east and west. One of the major powers of the world, the Republic of Venice, held a key role in the spice trade; however, when the Silk Road was was blocked by the Ottoman Empire taking over Constantinople, access to the east became almost impossible. The only other known possible route involved sailing around the bottom of Africa to the east. This proved to be a lengthy and excessively out of the way method for reaching the eastern lands. This inconvenient course acted as a catalyst to Christopher Columbus’ attempt to find a quicker route to China and India by going “around” the world to the west, eventually landing him in the New World.
The Spanish crown interpreted Christopher Columbus’ idea to reach the east as a chance to participate in the trading economy. When he arrived at the land for which he believe to be India, hence the term Indians, he became aware of the fact that he hadn’t reached his hopeful destination at all. Instead, he had stumbled upon the New World, which was already inhabited by Native Americans. Because the original goal of his expedition was for commerce, Christopher Columbus was ultimately there to acquire gold and treasures, whether it be from India or the New World. This mindset led to extreme brutality from Columbus’ Spanish men towards the Native Americans. This inhumanity took the form of shooting first, and asking questions later, only to justify their actions with the use of the Spanish Inquisition. The Spanish Inquisition and the reconquest of Spain proved to be the two main reasons for their savagery towards the Native Americans. Today, Indians in Mexico are found to still be treated crudely, quite similarly to the ways the Spanish treated the Native Americans during the Spanish Inquisition. Mexico’s government still favors conformity towards the more powerful, leaving indigenous people left to their own unwanted outland communities to fend for themselves, without being officially recognized as a citizen of Mexico.
Unlike the Spanish, the English’s arrival in the New World was for land rather than gold. England’s intentions were to continue to strengthen their empire, and expand their power over the world. Although the English were much kinder to the native people of the land, they still had ulterior motives that didn’t coexist with the lives of the Native Americans. Instead of killing them all, they sanctioned them to reservations. Today, Indian reservations still exist, and the United States recognizes them as citizens on the country.
When the French first sailed towards the New World, they expressed motives of trade, and a colonial mentality similar to the English. They co-existed with the natives more effectively because they weren’t looking to obtain their land or freedom. Eventually, the French were able to strike up a very successful trade of fur, and make the act of colonization very profitable. In todays world, natives are given first nation statuses in Canada, and are treated with respect and citizenship.
Stemming from the expedition for new land by the English, the first colony emerged on the banks of the James River, in modern day Virginia. This colony, named Jamestown, was founded on May 4th, 1607 by the Virginia Company of London.
Jamestown was founded as a business venture by a corporate company, and was hopeful to become a profit towards the organization and King James l. Many of the colonists were “gentleman” who had invested in the project, and were looking for a currency return in gold. The motives of the Jamestown colonists were severely different from those of the Plymouth colony, because of their lust for money rather than expansion.
Years after the development of Jamestown, Plymouth was created as the second successful English colony. Founded by English Separatist Puritans in December of 1620, Plymouth was settled in modern day Massachusetts, rather than the south near Jamestown.
Plymouth was founded by English settlers who had broken away from the Church of England. Unlike Jamestown, these colonists were motivated by religious freedom, and independence, rather than gold. Later known as pilgrims, these colonists looked for life in Plymouth. Here, they could practice free religion, and live a life away from the control of the English.
Both of these colonies were formed because of England’s previously mentioned thirst for more land; for this land would make the difference behind innovation and the expansion of English power. Though they were built on the same vague premises, there are many differences between the two colonies. Compared to Jamestown, Plymouth was much more prepared to create a successful colony. This was because Plymouth carried the motive of God rather than being a point of business. The two main motives seen between these two colonies are God and gold. The motive of God, implies lively ideals such as love, freedom, happiness, individual initiative and liberty over gold and resource development. Gold insinuates resource development, and commerce over free life values.
The original Plymouth principles are still extremely evident in the current and past views of the Northern States. Originally from the Puritans who grew discontent with the church of England, the Puritan values of the north served as their morality. These values were based upon hard work, strict moral conduct, original sin, careful watch, predestination, and belief in the bible and ministers. Between God and gold, the north favored god, and life fulfillment. Today, Puritan values aren’t drilled into us as the rules for which we follow. Instead, they’re contained deep into our minds, and act as the basis of our emotions, judgment, behaviors, and manners, regardless of religion.
The Jamestown principles were very evident in the Southern States, even in our current state of history. These values reflect that respect, honor, and social status is defined by wealth, and placement on the socioeconomic scale. Between God and gold, the south excessively favors gold. These two differences in life values between the north and the south are believed to be the basis for the eventual civil war, and a premise for all conflicts between.
One modern day example of the colonial values of God versus gold, is in the topic of our two main political parties in the Unites States. The Democratic party reflects the views of the north during colonization. In the north, they believed in individualism, and being treated based on the person you are or want to be. In the democratic party, they deem that taxes should be calculated by your income, and that society should be based off community and social responsibilities. On the other hand, the Republican party represents the business oriented south. Republicans believe that no one should pay extra taxes, making taxation equal among the population. This is based on the values of individual rights and justice, making them favor the values of gold rather than God. These values from our original colonies still remain with the current world, always turning us back to our roots, and the beginning of our history.
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Honors Essay 2 - The Revolution
The American Revolution was directly conceived by the colonists of the New World, and their lust for autonomy. Though there were many reasons for the British colonists to be apprehensive about their future with the British crown, both the ideals of God and money were identified as the main colonial motivations for the revolution. The essence of God played a part in colonial unrest through the existential views of the superior British, and their patronization of their colonists. Their control, restriction of freedom, overall opposing opinions, and different points of view aided the colonists animosity towards the crown. Soon the colonists realized they were able to govern themselves, and didn’t need the micromanagement of the British. In addition, money was extremely influential when it came to the motives of the colonists. The extreme debt from the French-Indian war led to absurd taxes set upon the colonies, causing the price of basic life to inflate excessively. Moreover, the British saw the colonies as money makers for the mother country to expand its sphere of influence, making self industrialism impossible for colonists, and causing problems of forced mercantilism and commercialism. After constant control and restriction, infelicity permeated the colonies, and their loss of freedom acted as the catalyst of the revolution.
The concept and purpose of the revolution was brought upon unanimously by those oppressed; however, the average colonist didn’t have the authority or influence that was needed to control a movement. Thusly, members of the wealthy upper/common class were seen to have stepped up and taken charge. Some of the main propagandists of the American Revolution were Thomas Paine, Patrick Henry, and John Hancock. Each of these men were able to make a difference and start the revolution because of their socioeconomic state, and their powers of influence. Thomas Paine posed as the leader of pro-independence on the account of God and freedom. Using his expertise on writing, he published “Common Sense” to inspire the thirteen colonies to fight for independence. Paine also encouraged recruitment for the Continental Army, and the ideals of a democratic republic. His clear and effective rhetorics concerning the revolutionary thought of living without the tyranny of a king, made him a highly persuasive person to whom the masses loved. Similar to Paine, Patrick Henry lead in opposition to the ways of the British. Heavily involved with the opposition of the Stamp Act, Henry was known as a patriotic and anti-british activist, who formed the “new way” of thinking, and solidified the new idea of American independence. Lastly, we come to John Hancock, one of the more well known names in American history. Hancock played a large role in the start of the revolution amongst those of the highest class. Known as the wealthiest man in the colonies, he preached economic rhetorics, and convinced the majority to revolt for reasons of money and control. Although it was clear to these men exactly what they wanted, it wasn’t as easy for the average citizen to recognize.
The idea of completely changing one's way of life and community is difficult to fathom, especially when it involves warfare; nevertheless, convincing the average colonial citizen that the Revolution was in their interest seemed to be a natural movement. Thomas Paine and Patrick Henry both played a large role in the persuasion of the colonists; for they both, unlike John Hancock, spoke of change that was applicable to the average citizen. Their propagandist movement expressed that the English were stripping the colonists of their basic human rights, and that the British Parliament were restricting every level of society. These restrictions from the British Parliament helped to persuade the colonists to crave independence. One example was the the taxation of daily goods and necessary objects. In addition, the quartering act took place, which required colonists to provide British soldiers accommodations and housing, during the French and Indian War. Stemming from the French and Indian War, the victories of George Washington acted as a source of pride for the colonists, giving them trust towards the Continental Congress, and hope in the subsequent Continental Army. Lastly, the First Great Awakening acted as a religious revival for the thirteen colonies. This radical change in ideologies altered views on Puritanism, for which the colonies had been founded upon. Though many years separated the Great Awakening, these social tensions added to the coming Revolution. Each of these events caused extreme tension between the colonies and imperial officials; moreover, they effectively convinced colony citizens that a revolution would be in their interest.
Contrary to the majority of the colonists, there were some who opposed the Revolution; these people were known as Loyalists. Most commonly, Loyalists were people who who didn’t suffer from the mercantilism of the British, and were faithful to the British Empire. Many of those who were loyal to the crown, were usually employed by the British, or had long-standing attachments to Britain, making a rebellion seem morally wrong. In addition, some chose to side with the British for reasons of caution, deciding to stick with the safer option of siding with the large superpower rather than the risky rebellion known as the Patriots. These alliances were because Parliament was seen by some as the only legal channels of democracy, and that commerce and military protection would only come with being a part of the British Empire. Nevertheless, even the strongest empires can’t withstand the strength of a revolution.
The colonists known as the Patriots won the American Revolution for many different reasons, this caused a change in identification from British colonists to Americans, and the concept of American exceptionalism to develop. One of the many reasons why the Americans were able to win the war, was because of the constant support provided by France. Based on revenge from the French and Indian War, France aided America with immense amount of money, products, naval forces, and soldiers. Though it may have affected them negatively in the long run, they were able to help weaken British forces, and share the victory with America. Additionally, the Patriots had the “home court” advantage. They didn’t have to plan attacks on foreign land, instead they used their defensive tactics to repel British forces until they chose to give up. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense expressed the idea of American exceptionalism. This was the belief that America wasn't an extension of Europe, but a new land with unlimited potential, and the opportunity to progress beyond the mother country. This change in ideology gave the newly Americans a change in views, and developed the strong sense of superiority. After the Revolution, many of the Loyalists left by fleeing to Canada or Britain. Because many of the loyalists were the more wealthy occupants of the colonies, their departure destroyed the cohesion of the upper class, and American history often brands them as traitors.
Upon the end of the Revolution, newly independent America formed the Articles of Confederation. This document established the United States of America as a multiplicity of confederalized sovereign states, and acted as the first constitution. Moreover, the Articles created a government that contained Congress. Congress held the power to declare war, establish military officers, sign and create treaties, and manage relations with other groups. In addition, Congress possessed the ability to establish currencies, weight and measurement systems, common standards, and national organizations such as post offices. However, only the states had the power to tax, additionally congress lacked the power to draft soldiers or regulate trade, and there was no arrangement for national courts. Congress was to be equally represented by all states, and it was required that nine of the thirteen states approved a bill before it became a law. This set a good basis of democracy to a previously autocratic state.
For many reasons, the Articles of Confederation were very popular with the Americans. The Articles incorporated local authority and identity, ergo sovereign states, and taxes and trade were individualized towards each state. These children of the Revolution were living without a centralized king, and they were able to feel loyalty to their community rather than a mother country half a world away. This created a very loose government system, unlike the restrictive life they had been previously living, and finally people found their voice. However, this new government soon found more problems than they had previously fixed.
This first American government proved successful and prized by the American people, however after the short term novelty wore off, many problems became apparent. This loose government lacked the needed structure to make things work, and it was found that there wasn’t very much happening at the government level. The idea of autonomous states made an unorganized structure where local authorities had the opportunity to do many things, but lacked the follow through. These effects made it easy to see why revolutionaries lack the skill of good government. They felt loyalty to their colony, rather than country, making coexistence as a whole very difficult. Furthermore, the lack of nationwide taxes weakened the American economy, and the debt from the war affected their trade capabilities. As follows, citizens with money were looking for a system with a sense of security and organization, with laws and economic regulations that they could trust. Changing the Articles of Confederation proved to be very difficult, because of the distance between gaining unanimous votes, another fault with a lack of centralized government. Between all of the problems and disagreements created, the Articles of Confederation were deemed an inadequate scheme of government.
Instead of leaving the United States in shambles and ignoring the problems in the government, the thirteen states came together to create the United States Constitution. This created a new federal government, which existed to serve the states, while respecting the people. Instead of resulting back to the autocratic ways of the British rule, the Constitution created three systems of government to keep each other in check; namely, the electoral, legislative, and judicial branch. These branches were lead by the President of the United States, Congress, and judges, effectively making decisions on a national level, rather than state. This new system of government allowed each branch to have a separate role, creating multiple levels in which decisions had to go through, allowing the best compromises. The legislative branch worked to create laws and tackle the first stages of lawmaking, and was made up of two houses; the House of Representatives, and the Senate. The executive branches responsibility was implementing and enforcing laws which have been passed through Congress. The judicial branch acted as the third level of law making, which defined presented laws, and either validated or deemed them unneeded. Similarly to modern day, this system of government is still in place.
When creating this new system of government, few problems arose. However, the transition between local governments to representatives for each state in a central government proved to be controversial, leading to many events such as The Great Compromise. Framers such as George Washington, Ben Franklin, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton found problems in the representative methods of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Great Compromise, came as a compromise to an uproar of events such as the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan which proposed different methods of accommodating votes fairly for each states. The compromise incorporated the fact that lower populated states might be given too much power, if their votes were to count the same as states with larger populations. Therefor, a weighted system needed to be developed to ensure a fair voting system. The Great Compromise settled the arguments, and decided that in one branch of Congress, each state was to be given equal delegation, previously known as the New Jersey Plan, and in the second branch, proportional representation, known as the Virginia Plan, would be used. This created the Senate, where each state was allocated two seats, and the House of Representatives, where the number of seats each state had depended on its population.
Thought this new form of government was working, the idea of individual rights and freedom had yet to be dealt with; this led to the creation of the Bill of Rights. Anti-Federalists opposed the creation of the U.S. Federal Government, because they felt that the Articles of Confederation better accounted for the basic amendments of civil liberties. In order to ratify the Constitution, the Bill of Rights was created to abolish the Anti-Federalist’s fear that the government would result to the dreaded monarchy for which they had experienced before. The ten amendments listed in the Bill of Rights served, and still serve, to protect the citizens of the United States of America, and protect their rights to property, rights as individuals, and limit the power the Government has over its citizens.
Almost all of the previously mentioned aspects of government are still in action today; moreover, every piece of history from the start of America has affected the way we live now, especially the modern political views of the nation. As political tradition has unfolded, we have identified Anti-Federalists as those who are invested in the ideals of God. These ideals include individual liberty, freedom, civil rights, large government involvement, and openness for change. Known as Democrats, they have more liberal views, that tend to form looser structures of governments, such as the Articles of Confederation. Anti-Federalists are known to lack military involvement, for fear of corruption in efforts of defence; especially when building standing armies during times of peace.
Contrary to the motives of the Anti-Federalists, Federalists are invested in the ideals of money. These ideals include the rights for an individual to have and make money, an organized structure of law and order, minimal government action, and a large investment in military and defence. Also known as Republicans, they have more conservative views on government, and keep a more organized and regulated structure of power. To this day, Federalists believe in strong central governments, and have radically different fears, ideals, and opinions on constitutional power when compared to Anti-Federalists.
After incorporating all of the history the United States has seen, it’s seems inevitable that decisions of political parties flip-flop between the classification of Federalism and Anti-Federalism. The modern day public is posed with a myriad of new controversies, which didn’t apply to society centuries ago. Examples such as abortion rights, environmental protection, and affirmative action are issues for which George Washington wouldn’t concern himself with. However, in this day and age everyone has an opinion. Positions on these issues are seen to change constantly; for opinions usually cannot be explicitly identified with one party or the other. Though it’s hard to classify opinions on certain topics, we haven’t yet reached the point in society where persons can’t identify themselves as a democrat or a republican. Eventually, political views will merge and new concerns will arise, however for now, the majority of people primarily see the Republican party as Federalists, and the Democratic party as Anti-Federalists. Republican values still reflect the same economic beliefs as the Federalists, and their strong investment in national security and military. Democrats still reflect the same values as the Anti-Federalists when it comes to the shared wealth in America, and the ideals of local authority and government. Based on the similarities between the government we experience and the the original version established in the 18th century, the United States of America has experienced exceptional ways of government which continue to prevail and effect the nation’s future.
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The American Revolution was directly conceived by the colonists of the New World, and their lust for autonomy. Though there were many reasons for the British colonists to be apprehensive about their future with the British crown, both the ideals of God and money were identified as the main colonial motivations for the revolution. The essence of God played a part in colonial unrest through the existential views of the superior British, and their patronization of their colonists. Their control, restriction of freedom, overall opposing opinions, and different points of view aided the colonists animosity towards the crown. Soon the colonists realized they were able to govern themselves, and didn’t need the micromanagement of the British. In addition, money was extremely influential when it came to the motives of the colonists. The extreme debt from the French-Indian war led to absurd taxes set upon the colonies, causing the price of basic life to inflate excessively. Moreover, the British saw the colonies as money makers for the mother country to expand its sphere of influence, making self industrialism impossible for colonists, and causing problems of forced mercantilism and commercialism. After constant control and restriction, infelicity permeated the colonies, and their loss of freedom acted as the catalyst of the revolution.
The concept and purpose of the revolution was brought upon unanimously by those oppressed; however, the average colonist didn’t have the authority or influence that was needed to control a movement. Thusly, members of the wealthy upper/common class were seen to have stepped up and taken charge. Some of the main propagandists of the American Revolution were Thomas Paine, Patrick Henry, and John Hancock. Each of these men were able to make a difference and start the revolution because of their socioeconomic state, and their powers of influence. Thomas Paine posed as the leader of pro-independence on the account of God and freedom. Using his expertise on writing, he published “Common Sense” to inspire the thirteen colonies to fight for independence. Paine also encouraged recruitment for the Continental Army, and the ideals of a democratic republic. His clear and effective rhetorics concerning the revolutionary thought of living without the tyranny of a king, made him a highly persuasive person to whom the masses loved. Similar to Paine, Patrick Henry lead in opposition to the ways of the British. Heavily involved with the opposition of the Stamp Act, Henry was known as a patriotic and anti-british activist, who formed the “new way” of thinking, and solidified the new idea of American independence. Lastly, we come to John Hancock, one of the more well known names in American history. Hancock played a large role in the start of the revolution amongst those of the highest class. Known as the wealthiest man in the colonies, he preached economic rhetorics, and convinced the majority to revolt for reasons of money and control. Although it was clear to these men exactly what they wanted, it wasn’t as easy for the average citizen to recognize.
The idea of completely changing one's way of life and community is difficult to fathom, especially when it involves warfare; nevertheless, convincing the average colonial citizen that the Revolution was in their interest seemed to be a natural movement. Thomas Paine and Patrick Henry both played a large role in the persuasion of the colonists; for they both, unlike John Hancock, spoke of change that was applicable to the average citizen. Their propagandist movement expressed that the English were stripping the colonists of their basic human rights, and that the British Parliament were restricting every level of society. These restrictions from the British Parliament helped to persuade the colonists to crave independence. One example was the the taxation of daily goods and necessary objects. In addition, the quartering act took place, which required colonists to provide British soldiers accommodations and housing, during the French and Indian War. Stemming from the French and Indian War, the victories of George Washington acted as a source of pride for the colonists, giving them trust towards the Continental Congress, and hope in the subsequent Continental Army. Lastly, the First Great Awakening acted as a religious revival for the thirteen colonies. This radical change in ideologies altered views on Puritanism, for which the colonies had been founded upon. Though many years separated the Great Awakening, these social tensions added to the coming Revolution. Each of these events caused extreme tension between the colonies and imperial officials; moreover, they effectively convinced colony citizens that a revolution would be in their interest.
Contrary to the majority of the colonists, there were some who opposed the Revolution; these people were known as Loyalists. Most commonly, Loyalists were people who who didn’t suffer from the mercantilism of the British, and were faithful to the British Empire. Many of those who were loyal to the crown, were usually employed by the British, or had long-standing attachments to Britain, making a rebellion seem morally wrong. In addition, some chose to side with the British for reasons of caution, deciding to stick with the safer option of siding with the large superpower rather than the risky rebellion known as the Patriots. These alliances were because Parliament was seen by some as the only legal channels of democracy, and that commerce and military protection would only come with being a part of the British Empire. Nevertheless, even the strongest empires can’t withstand the strength of a revolution.
The colonists known as the Patriots won the American Revolution for many different reasons, this caused a change in identification from British colonists to Americans, and the concept of American exceptionalism to develop. One of the many reasons why the Americans were able to win the war, was because of the constant support provided by France. Based on revenge from the French and Indian War, France aided America with immense amount of money, products, naval forces, and soldiers. Though it may have affected them negatively in the long run, they were able to help weaken British forces, and share the victory with America. Additionally, the Patriots had the “home court” advantage. They didn’t have to plan attacks on foreign land, instead they used their defensive tactics to repel British forces until they chose to give up. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense expressed the idea of American exceptionalism. This was the belief that America wasn't an extension of Europe, but a new land with unlimited potential, and the opportunity to progress beyond the mother country. This change in ideology gave the newly Americans a change in views, and developed the strong sense of superiority. After the Revolution, many of the Loyalists left by fleeing to Canada or Britain. Because many of the loyalists were the more wealthy occupants of the colonies, their departure destroyed the cohesion of the upper class, and American history often brands them as traitors.
Upon the end of the Revolution, newly independent America formed the Articles of Confederation. This document established the United States of America as a multiplicity of confederalized sovereign states, and acted as the first constitution. Moreover, the Articles created a government that contained Congress. Congress held the power to declare war, establish military officers, sign and create treaties, and manage relations with other groups. In addition, Congress possessed the ability to establish currencies, weight and measurement systems, common standards, and national organizations such as post offices. However, only the states had the power to tax, additionally congress lacked the power to draft soldiers or regulate trade, and there was no arrangement for national courts. Congress was to be equally represented by all states, and it was required that nine of the thirteen states approved a bill before it became a law. This set a good basis of democracy to a previously autocratic state.
For many reasons, the Articles of Confederation were very popular with the Americans. The Articles incorporated local authority and identity, ergo sovereign states, and taxes and trade were individualized towards each state. These children of the Revolution were living without a centralized king, and they were able to feel loyalty to their community rather than a mother country half a world away. This created a very loose government system, unlike the restrictive life they had been previously living, and finally people found their voice. However, this new government soon found more problems than they had previously fixed.
This first American government proved successful and prized by the American people, however after the short term novelty wore off, many problems became apparent. This loose government lacked the needed structure to make things work, and it was found that there wasn’t very much happening at the government level. The idea of autonomous states made an unorganized structure where local authorities had the opportunity to do many things, but lacked the follow through. These effects made it easy to see why revolutionaries lack the skill of good government. They felt loyalty to their colony, rather than country, making coexistence as a whole very difficult. Furthermore, the lack of nationwide taxes weakened the American economy, and the debt from the war affected their trade capabilities. As follows, citizens with money were looking for a system with a sense of security and organization, with laws and economic regulations that they could trust. Changing the Articles of Confederation proved to be very difficult, because of the distance between gaining unanimous votes, another fault with a lack of centralized government. Between all of the problems and disagreements created, the Articles of Confederation were deemed an inadequate scheme of government.
Instead of leaving the United States in shambles and ignoring the problems in the government, the thirteen states came together to create the United States Constitution. This created a new federal government, which existed to serve the states, while respecting the people. Instead of resulting back to the autocratic ways of the British rule, the Constitution created three systems of government to keep each other in check; namely, the electoral, legislative, and judicial branch. These branches were lead by the President of the United States, Congress, and judges, effectively making decisions on a national level, rather than state. This new system of government allowed each branch to have a separate role, creating multiple levels in which decisions had to go through, allowing the best compromises. The legislative branch worked to create laws and tackle the first stages of lawmaking, and was made up of two houses; the House of Representatives, and the Senate. The executive branches responsibility was implementing and enforcing laws which have been passed through Congress. The judicial branch acted as the third level of law making, which defined presented laws, and either validated or deemed them unneeded. Similarly to modern day, this system of government is still in place.
When creating this new system of government, few problems arose. However, the transition between local governments to representatives for each state in a central government proved to be controversial, leading to many events such as The Great Compromise. Framers such as George Washington, Ben Franklin, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton found problems in the representative methods of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Great Compromise, came as a compromise to an uproar of events such as the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan which proposed different methods of accommodating votes fairly for each states. The compromise incorporated the fact that lower populated states might be given too much power, if their votes were to count the same as states with larger populations. Therefor, a weighted system needed to be developed to ensure a fair voting system. The Great Compromise settled the arguments, and decided that in one branch of Congress, each state was to be given equal delegation, previously known as the New Jersey Plan, and in the second branch, proportional representation, known as the Virginia Plan, would be used. This created the Senate, where each state was allocated two seats, and the House of Representatives, where the number of seats each state had depended on its population.
Thought this new form of government was working, the idea of individual rights and freedom had yet to be dealt with; this led to the creation of the Bill of Rights. Anti-Federalists opposed the creation of the U.S. Federal Government, because they felt that the Articles of Confederation better accounted for the basic amendments of civil liberties. In order to ratify the Constitution, the Bill of Rights was created to abolish the Anti-Federalist’s fear that the government would result to the dreaded monarchy for which they had experienced before. The ten amendments listed in the Bill of Rights served, and still serve, to protect the citizens of the United States of America, and protect their rights to property, rights as individuals, and limit the power the Government has over its citizens.
Almost all of the previously mentioned aspects of government are still in action today; moreover, every piece of history from the start of America has affected the way we live now, especially the modern political views of the nation. As political tradition has unfolded, we have identified Anti-Federalists as those who are invested in the ideals of God. These ideals include individual liberty, freedom, civil rights, large government involvement, and openness for change. Known as Democrats, they have more liberal views, that tend to form looser structures of governments, such as the Articles of Confederation. Anti-Federalists are known to lack military involvement, for fear of corruption in efforts of defence; especially when building standing armies during times of peace.
Contrary to the motives of the Anti-Federalists, Federalists are invested in the ideals of money. These ideals include the rights for an individual to have and make money, an organized structure of law and order, minimal government action, and a large investment in military and defence. Also known as Republicans, they have more conservative views on government, and keep a more organized and regulated structure of power. To this day, Federalists believe in strong central governments, and have radically different fears, ideals, and opinions on constitutional power when compared to Anti-Federalists.
After incorporating all of the history the United States has seen, it’s seems inevitable that decisions of political parties flip-flop between the classification of Federalism and Anti-Federalism. The modern day public is posed with a myriad of new controversies, which didn’t apply to society centuries ago. Examples such as abortion rights, environmental protection, and affirmative action are issues for which George Washington wouldn’t concern himself with. However, in this day and age everyone has an opinion. Positions on these issues are seen to change constantly; for opinions usually cannot be explicitly identified with one party or the other. Though it’s hard to classify opinions on certain topics, we haven’t yet reached the point in society where persons can’t identify themselves as a democrat or a republican. Eventually, political views will merge and new concerns will arise, however for now, the majority of people primarily see the Republican party as Federalists, and the Democratic party as Anti-Federalists. Republican values still reflect the same economic beliefs as the Federalists, and their strong investment in national security and military. Democrats still reflect the same values as the Anti-Federalists when it comes to the shared wealth in America, and the ideals of local authority and government. Based on the similarities between the government we experience and the the original version established in the 18th century, the United States of America has experienced exceptional ways of government which continue to prevail and effect the nation’s future.
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Honors Essay 3 - The Virginia Dynasty
American democracy and the political processes of the United States, wouldn’t have been arrived upon without the help of George Washington. After serving as a commander in the Revolutionary Army, and fighting in the French-Indian War, Washington was seen as a well respected war hero and acquired an esteemed track record for his many battle victories. His federalistic views were respected by both the federalist and antifederalist parties, and he was viewed as a man of fairness, integrity, courage, selflessness, presence, and inspirational nature. His held the concept that a present leader should only temporarily hold presidency, which was agreed upon by all, for the children of the revolution resented the idea of a king. The fact that he didn’t want to job for the long run, aided his trait of humbleness, and he was always willing to work when the country needed him. Each of these reasons led to the unanimous election of George Washington as the first president of the United States, and the start of the Virginia dynasty.
Serving under George Washington’s presidency, was Alexander Hamilton. After being born a bastard child of uncertain heritage, he displayed skills of hard work, persistence and initiative, and served in the American Revolution alongside Washington to whom he shared federalistic views. After making a name for himself as a war hero, he took up a power of position as the Secretary of the Treasury. His most notable actions in power include his creation of a national bank, taxes, tariffs, the US Mint, and trades. His idea of raised taxes intended to eliminate the Nation’s debt left over from the war, and strengthen the American economy. This concept initially lacked the interest of the rich, for they didn’t want to have to pay extra money; however, once they realized that they were the ones who held the war bonds, they were eager to join. Essentially the rich would have to pay more taxes, however in the long run that money would come back to them, in addition to the interest initially promised to them. Hamilton also constructed a system of tariffs which taxed imported goods, encouraging manufacturing and mercantilism in the United States. However through these efforts to boost American economy, Hamilton’s taxes on basic objects such as whiskey, were opposed by the majority. This eventually caused multiple coups against government control and taxation, such as the Whiskey Rebellion; which displayed reactionary elements to Shay’ rebellion. These backlashes of the revolution both favored the upper class, causing antifederalist views to become widely known. Anti-federalists such as Thomas Jefferson opposed these taxes and regulation, and in consequence these uprisings caused a split in American ideology and aided the creation of different parties.
Thomas Jefferson was an anti federalist who liked individual rights, advocated for democracy, and disagreed with the works of Hamilton. As a child of the revolution and one of the founding fathers of America, he held the position of Secretary of State under the Washington administration. His anti federalist views included the belief in locality, individuality, and an agricultural rather than industrial Unites States. Moreover, Jefferson was known for his interest in local government, and his opposition towards Hamilton’s economic policies, such as the creation of a national bank and taxes.
After serving two terms, George Washington followed through with his belief in a leader's ability to step down, and gave his farewell address. In this address, he warned the American public of three things for their future. First, he warned against foreign alliances. As the United States was just starting to get on it’s feet, he explained that it was paramount to focus on themselves and the economy, rather than becoming entangled in alliances and enemies. Second, Washington believed that the United States shouldn’t have a standing army, for it could be seen as a threat to others. Instead he advised we have small militias that could step up when needed. Lastly, Washington disagreed with the creation of separate political parties. He rightly expressed that opposing parties would create a political gridlock, and agreements would never be arrived upon. It’s clear that somewhere in history each of these advisements were ignored, for America struggles with each of these problems today.
As a second American election came around, John Adams assumed the position of the president of the Unites States. Washington had left a large shadow, difficult for anyone to fill. In addition, the war between the British and French was causing partisanship among factions of the United States, and created rifts between political views. Even so, Adams’ federalistic views were very popular with the voters of the time, eventually leading to his election. Though popular with the voters because of his sense strong sense of central government, Adams carried a prickly and pompous personality, and had strong federalist and biased opinions making him far from a people pleaser. Adams had an ungovernable temper and was indecisive during wartime, leading him to make irresponsible decisions without consulting his advisors or cabinet . His fierce competition skills often times seemed threatening towards democracy, and he was seen to favor aristocracy and monarchy due to his aversion towards the French Revolution. Furthermore, his federalist views were interpreted as pro-British actions, and he was criticized by both the anti federalists, and even his own federalist party. Though he might have been seen as the ideal candidate during elections, Adam’s only served one term, for he simply was not suited for presidency.
Following the advice from Washington, Adams was against global conflict. He held interests in America being a neutral country, for which no harm can be beset upon if not involved in conflict. After most of the American debt had been paid through Hamilton’s bank system, the nation was essentially a newborn country. However like all newborns, the country was unstable. Any foreign politics could diminish everything they had worked for, ergo Adams’ focus on finishing the debt and rebuilding the economy, rather than creating foreign conflicts. Adams’ concern actually stemmed from the conflict of Jay’s Treaty which occurred during the end of the Washington administration. During this event, British ships were attacked US ships, and oppressing them into service. As the US drafted and proposed a treaty to the British to stop these events, Alexander Hamilton gave away the American bargaining position by informing the British of our limits. The terms of the treaty were viewed as pro-british, upsetting both the Americans and the French. Because of the rivalry between the French and British, the French was extremely upset by terms of Jay’s Treaty. After the support given during the American Revolution, they rightly expected the favor to be returned. However, through Adams’ efforts to disengage from foreign affairs, he denied involving America in the French Revolution, and the terms presented in Jay’s Treaty appeared to be pro-British. In efforts of creating a more neutral opinionated country, Adams sent over US ambassadors to France to gain peace, however their request to consult with the French Prime Minister was denied, forcing them to return home without any negotiations. When news of this event was released, the Frenchmen were simply referred to as XY&Z, for reasons of difficult pronunciation. All of these foreign disputes fell into the lap of John Adams, though they weren’t entirely his fault, and were against his proposed ideals of America.
Adam’s presidency and administration was under constant criticism after these events, causing the Federalists to create the Alien and Sedition Acts. These acts kept “rebels” in check, by oppressing the press’s poor representation of the truth, and subsiding the voice of the American immigrants who often assumed the position of antifederalists. The Alien Act gave the government power to send any immigrants deemed dangerous or involved in treason to jail, or back to their homeland. The Sedition Act fined anyone who created false or malicious writing regarding the government, in efforts of reducing government criticism. Though these acts were created for two separate audiences, they were both seen as an extreme violation of civil liberties, and the First Amendment: freedom of speech. These paranoid actions of Adams are seen as a step too far, and an act of tyranny. His opinions opposed those of the children of the revolution, and the anti federalists.
After initially losing the presidential election to John Adams, Thomas Jefferson eventually prevailed and became the third president of the United States. His presidential campaign was seen as a major icon of democracy, and his advocation for freedom, individual liberties, and the bill of rights aided to his election immensely. Unlike other political figures, Jefferson supported the common class, and envisioned an agricultural future for America which incorporated small forms of government, and excluded modernization; thusly, Jefferson was identified as an anti federalist president.
Thomas Jefferson was seen as one of the biggest opposers of the Alien and Sedition acts. As expected from his time as an antifederalist working as the vice-president of a federalist campaign, he opposed many of the views and policies of Adams, causing him to participate in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Because Jefferson was still in the position of vice-president, he was unable to openly speak out about his views. Furthermore, Jefferson covertly aided James Madison in the formulation of resolutions which contended that the states held the power to deem any acts of Congress that weren’t warranted by the Constitution, unconstitutional. These resolutions were known as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. As Adams’ presidency continued to acquire negative regards, these resolutions boosted the anti federalist ideals, and swayed the voters opinions for the upcoming election in favor of Jefferson and the anti federalist party.
After Adam’s had served one four year term, the election of 1800 came around. The candidates included John Adams, running for re-election, Thomas Jefferson, and the successful lawyer and politician, Aaron Burr. In consequence of Adams’ political decisions, overall presidency, and the effects of the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, he lacked needed votes. This left the candidacy with a tied electoral votes between two relatively equal anti federalist opponents. However, previous animosity involving Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr caused a major change in the election. Once Hamilton realized that Adams, the only fellow federalist in the running was not going to be able to win the election, he swayed his and his parties votes away from Burr, and towards Jefferson. With the federalist votes, Jefferson won the majority, and Burr was assigned as his vice-president. In consequence of this ploy, Hamilton was challenged to a trivial handgun duel by Burr. Through false signals and a misinterpretation of proper gestures of abdication, Burr shot and killed Alexander Hamilton as an act of revenge.
The event known as the Midnight Judges, acted as Adams’ last hoorah of his presidency, and led to the case of Marbury vs Madison, and the creation of judicial review in the federal court system. As the Unites States was about to be put into the hands of antifederalists, Adams decided to make one last change before trading off the Presidential position. Known for his rash decisions and lack of communication to his cabinet, Adams packed the court with Federalist judges during the last night of his presidency. This event known as the Midnight Judges, took place in in efforts of keeping some federalist voice in power, while both the new president and vice-president believed in anti federalism. Though Adams successfully hired majority of his federalist judges, the paperwork of one judge didn’t go through in time. This judge by the name of William Marbury, called upon the new Secretary of State, James Madison, to follow through with the delivery. After Madison’s refusal, Marbury took his case all the way up to the supreme court, and created the event known as Marbury vs. Madison. The Supreme Court judge, John Marshall agreed that Madison’s actions were illegitimate, however in court he denied Marbury’s petition. Through these acts, the supreme court gave the trial to Jefferson’s administration, however those actions displayed the power that the court held, which was displeasing to Jefferson and his ideals. Nonetheless, this trial formed the operation of judicial review, and developed a definite boundary between the judicial and executive branches of the American government.
As the American government was expanding and solidifying, so were the borders of the country. During the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, The Louisiana Purchase bought an immense amount of land from the French, and expanded the boundaries of America by two fold. Jefferson payed this large sum of money, because he foresaw a future of agriculture and and countrysides for America, rather than cities. In efforts of preventing modernization, he spread out the land, leaving more space to be settled and cultivated upon. These actions are quite ironic, for Jefferson was the one who undoubtedly believed in small, local, life, only to increase the size of the American frontier.
Ensuing Jefferson’s presidency, was yet another anti federalist president. Know as the last president of the Virginia dynasty, the Father of the Constitution, and key author of the Bill of Rights, James Madison assumed the position as the fourth president of the United States. Madison was an intellectual man, with a presidency carrying federalist and pro-french views. During Jefferson’s presidency, all trade between the United States and both Britain and France was stopped, however Madison realized that this was taking a toll on the American economy, this eventually resulted in a change of foreign policy and the War of 1812.
The War of 1812 happened on account of three main reasons for the United States’ declaration of warfare. First, Madison decided that the American economy needed foreign trade to boost the falling economy. Thusly, he presented trade propositions to both the French and the British. Essentially the US was willing to trade with one country, however instead of diplomatically deciding which one, they presented a race. The first to respond to the proposal could assume the trading partner position with the Unites States. Though Britain did respond in interest of trade, the French were one step ahead. Secondly, the British disliked Madison’s methods of government, largely because of his well known pro-french ideals, and biased opinions. Lastly, the true catalyst of the war came from the warhawks of the American frontier, who were essentially Indian fighters, and anti-federalist entities. These warhawks were constantly involved in various altercations with the Native Americans, who were directly aided by the British. Once Madison was informed of these British attacks, he decided that America must take a stance for their independence. War against the British was declared, and the United States brought upon the War of 1812. Known historically for the burning of the White House, and the storming of the capitol, this short war acted as a last dispute between the Americans and the British. A humorous ending was found in the Battle of New Orleans. Though a peace treaty was signed for the war, word didn’t travel fast enough, causing this battle to occur after the official end of war. Aside from the tragedies, this last battle was an entertaining end to an already concluded war.
The last president of the Virginia Dynasty, James Monroe, acted as the start of the “age of good feelings.” After two federalist president and two antifederalist presidents, Monroe’s views seemed to merge together the two political parties. Because of the generational change since the revolution, the original children of the revolution had started to die off, and those in American had been living under the constitution for a very long time. As a result, the common ideals of the antifederalists were starting to move towards similar views to the federalists, and the political public seemed to start to agree on things. Monroe’s presidency created a new era of American government, and brought a feeling of well-being to the nation.
As the United States was finally being ridden of all British control and the American government ideals were solidifying, the Monroe Doctrine was created. This acted as a precursor to extreme western expansion, and the beginning of a “new” nation. The Monroe Doctrine declared that any efforts of colonization/re-colonization from European nations would be seen as an act of aggression, and would require the involvement of the US. As the US gained credibility, land, and a new sense of individualism and pride, the beginnings of manifest-destiny could be seen. This impacted the way America interacted with other nations, and viewed itself as a superior creation, essentially developing the early principles of American exceptionalism. Through this newfound independence and self belief, the modern American nation was born.
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Serving under George Washington’s presidency, was Alexander Hamilton. After being born a bastard child of uncertain heritage, he displayed skills of hard work, persistence and initiative, and served in the American Revolution alongside Washington to whom he shared federalistic views. After making a name for himself as a war hero, he took up a power of position as the Secretary of the Treasury. His most notable actions in power include his creation of a national bank, taxes, tariffs, the US Mint, and trades. His idea of raised taxes intended to eliminate the Nation’s debt left over from the war, and strengthen the American economy. This concept initially lacked the interest of the rich, for they didn’t want to have to pay extra money; however, once they realized that they were the ones who held the war bonds, they were eager to join. Essentially the rich would have to pay more taxes, however in the long run that money would come back to them, in addition to the interest initially promised to them. Hamilton also constructed a system of tariffs which taxed imported goods, encouraging manufacturing and mercantilism in the United States. However through these efforts to boost American economy, Hamilton’s taxes on basic objects such as whiskey, were opposed by the majority. This eventually caused multiple coups against government control and taxation, such as the Whiskey Rebellion; which displayed reactionary elements to Shay’ rebellion. These backlashes of the revolution both favored the upper class, causing antifederalist views to become widely known. Anti-federalists such as Thomas Jefferson opposed these taxes and regulation, and in consequence these uprisings caused a split in American ideology and aided the creation of different parties.
Thomas Jefferson was an anti federalist who liked individual rights, advocated for democracy, and disagreed with the works of Hamilton. As a child of the revolution and one of the founding fathers of America, he held the position of Secretary of State under the Washington administration. His anti federalist views included the belief in locality, individuality, and an agricultural rather than industrial Unites States. Moreover, Jefferson was known for his interest in local government, and his opposition towards Hamilton’s economic policies, such as the creation of a national bank and taxes.
After serving two terms, George Washington followed through with his belief in a leader's ability to step down, and gave his farewell address. In this address, he warned the American public of three things for their future. First, he warned against foreign alliances. As the United States was just starting to get on it’s feet, he explained that it was paramount to focus on themselves and the economy, rather than becoming entangled in alliances and enemies. Second, Washington believed that the United States shouldn’t have a standing army, for it could be seen as a threat to others. Instead he advised we have small militias that could step up when needed. Lastly, Washington disagreed with the creation of separate political parties. He rightly expressed that opposing parties would create a political gridlock, and agreements would never be arrived upon. It’s clear that somewhere in history each of these advisements were ignored, for America struggles with each of these problems today.
As a second American election came around, John Adams assumed the position of the president of the Unites States. Washington had left a large shadow, difficult for anyone to fill. In addition, the war between the British and French was causing partisanship among factions of the United States, and created rifts between political views. Even so, Adams’ federalistic views were very popular with the voters of the time, eventually leading to his election. Though popular with the voters because of his sense strong sense of central government, Adams carried a prickly and pompous personality, and had strong federalist and biased opinions making him far from a people pleaser. Adams had an ungovernable temper and was indecisive during wartime, leading him to make irresponsible decisions without consulting his advisors or cabinet . His fierce competition skills often times seemed threatening towards democracy, and he was seen to favor aristocracy and monarchy due to his aversion towards the French Revolution. Furthermore, his federalist views were interpreted as pro-British actions, and he was criticized by both the anti federalists, and even his own federalist party. Though he might have been seen as the ideal candidate during elections, Adam’s only served one term, for he simply was not suited for presidency.
Following the advice from Washington, Adams was against global conflict. He held interests in America being a neutral country, for which no harm can be beset upon if not involved in conflict. After most of the American debt had been paid through Hamilton’s bank system, the nation was essentially a newborn country. However like all newborns, the country was unstable. Any foreign politics could diminish everything they had worked for, ergo Adams’ focus on finishing the debt and rebuilding the economy, rather than creating foreign conflicts. Adams’ concern actually stemmed from the conflict of Jay’s Treaty which occurred during the end of the Washington administration. During this event, British ships were attacked US ships, and oppressing them into service. As the US drafted and proposed a treaty to the British to stop these events, Alexander Hamilton gave away the American bargaining position by informing the British of our limits. The terms of the treaty were viewed as pro-british, upsetting both the Americans and the French. Because of the rivalry between the French and British, the French was extremely upset by terms of Jay’s Treaty. After the support given during the American Revolution, they rightly expected the favor to be returned. However, through Adams’ efforts to disengage from foreign affairs, he denied involving America in the French Revolution, and the terms presented in Jay’s Treaty appeared to be pro-British. In efforts of creating a more neutral opinionated country, Adams sent over US ambassadors to France to gain peace, however their request to consult with the French Prime Minister was denied, forcing them to return home without any negotiations. When news of this event was released, the Frenchmen were simply referred to as XY&Z, for reasons of difficult pronunciation. All of these foreign disputes fell into the lap of John Adams, though they weren’t entirely his fault, and were against his proposed ideals of America.
Adam’s presidency and administration was under constant criticism after these events, causing the Federalists to create the Alien and Sedition Acts. These acts kept “rebels” in check, by oppressing the press’s poor representation of the truth, and subsiding the voice of the American immigrants who often assumed the position of antifederalists. The Alien Act gave the government power to send any immigrants deemed dangerous or involved in treason to jail, or back to their homeland. The Sedition Act fined anyone who created false or malicious writing regarding the government, in efforts of reducing government criticism. Though these acts were created for two separate audiences, they were both seen as an extreme violation of civil liberties, and the First Amendment: freedom of speech. These paranoid actions of Adams are seen as a step too far, and an act of tyranny. His opinions opposed those of the children of the revolution, and the anti federalists.
After initially losing the presidential election to John Adams, Thomas Jefferson eventually prevailed and became the third president of the United States. His presidential campaign was seen as a major icon of democracy, and his advocation for freedom, individual liberties, and the bill of rights aided to his election immensely. Unlike other political figures, Jefferson supported the common class, and envisioned an agricultural future for America which incorporated small forms of government, and excluded modernization; thusly, Jefferson was identified as an anti federalist president.
Thomas Jefferson was seen as one of the biggest opposers of the Alien and Sedition acts. As expected from his time as an antifederalist working as the vice-president of a federalist campaign, he opposed many of the views and policies of Adams, causing him to participate in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Because Jefferson was still in the position of vice-president, he was unable to openly speak out about his views. Furthermore, Jefferson covertly aided James Madison in the formulation of resolutions which contended that the states held the power to deem any acts of Congress that weren’t warranted by the Constitution, unconstitutional. These resolutions were known as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. As Adams’ presidency continued to acquire negative regards, these resolutions boosted the anti federalist ideals, and swayed the voters opinions for the upcoming election in favor of Jefferson and the anti federalist party.
After Adam’s had served one four year term, the election of 1800 came around. The candidates included John Adams, running for re-election, Thomas Jefferson, and the successful lawyer and politician, Aaron Burr. In consequence of Adams’ political decisions, overall presidency, and the effects of the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, he lacked needed votes. This left the candidacy with a tied electoral votes between two relatively equal anti federalist opponents. However, previous animosity involving Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr caused a major change in the election. Once Hamilton realized that Adams, the only fellow federalist in the running was not going to be able to win the election, he swayed his and his parties votes away from Burr, and towards Jefferson. With the federalist votes, Jefferson won the majority, and Burr was assigned as his vice-president. In consequence of this ploy, Hamilton was challenged to a trivial handgun duel by Burr. Through false signals and a misinterpretation of proper gestures of abdication, Burr shot and killed Alexander Hamilton as an act of revenge.
The event known as the Midnight Judges, acted as Adams’ last hoorah of his presidency, and led to the case of Marbury vs Madison, and the creation of judicial review in the federal court system. As the Unites States was about to be put into the hands of antifederalists, Adams decided to make one last change before trading off the Presidential position. Known for his rash decisions and lack of communication to his cabinet, Adams packed the court with Federalist judges during the last night of his presidency. This event known as the Midnight Judges, took place in in efforts of keeping some federalist voice in power, while both the new president and vice-president believed in anti federalism. Though Adams successfully hired majority of his federalist judges, the paperwork of one judge didn’t go through in time. This judge by the name of William Marbury, called upon the new Secretary of State, James Madison, to follow through with the delivery. After Madison’s refusal, Marbury took his case all the way up to the supreme court, and created the event known as Marbury vs. Madison. The Supreme Court judge, John Marshall agreed that Madison’s actions were illegitimate, however in court he denied Marbury’s petition. Through these acts, the supreme court gave the trial to Jefferson’s administration, however those actions displayed the power that the court held, which was displeasing to Jefferson and his ideals. Nonetheless, this trial formed the operation of judicial review, and developed a definite boundary between the judicial and executive branches of the American government.
As the American government was expanding and solidifying, so were the borders of the country. During the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, The Louisiana Purchase bought an immense amount of land from the French, and expanded the boundaries of America by two fold. Jefferson payed this large sum of money, because he foresaw a future of agriculture and and countrysides for America, rather than cities. In efforts of preventing modernization, he spread out the land, leaving more space to be settled and cultivated upon. These actions are quite ironic, for Jefferson was the one who undoubtedly believed in small, local, life, only to increase the size of the American frontier.
Ensuing Jefferson’s presidency, was yet another anti federalist president. Know as the last president of the Virginia dynasty, the Father of the Constitution, and key author of the Bill of Rights, James Madison assumed the position as the fourth president of the United States. Madison was an intellectual man, with a presidency carrying federalist and pro-french views. During Jefferson’s presidency, all trade between the United States and both Britain and France was stopped, however Madison realized that this was taking a toll on the American economy, this eventually resulted in a change of foreign policy and the War of 1812.
The War of 1812 happened on account of three main reasons for the United States’ declaration of warfare. First, Madison decided that the American economy needed foreign trade to boost the falling economy. Thusly, he presented trade propositions to both the French and the British. Essentially the US was willing to trade with one country, however instead of diplomatically deciding which one, they presented a race. The first to respond to the proposal could assume the trading partner position with the Unites States. Though Britain did respond in interest of trade, the French were one step ahead. Secondly, the British disliked Madison’s methods of government, largely because of his well known pro-french ideals, and biased opinions. Lastly, the true catalyst of the war came from the warhawks of the American frontier, who were essentially Indian fighters, and anti-federalist entities. These warhawks were constantly involved in various altercations with the Native Americans, who were directly aided by the British. Once Madison was informed of these British attacks, he decided that America must take a stance for their independence. War against the British was declared, and the United States brought upon the War of 1812. Known historically for the burning of the White House, and the storming of the capitol, this short war acted as a last dispute between the Americans and the British. A humorous ending was found in the Battle of New Orleans. Though a peace treaty was signed for the war, word didn’t travel fast enough, causing this battle to occur after the official end of war. Aside from the tragedies, this last battle was an entertaining end to an already concluded war.
The last president of the Virginia Dynasty, James Monroe, acted as the start of the “age of good feelings.” After two federalist president and two antifederalist presidents, Monroe’s views seemed to merge together the two political parties. Because of the generational change since the revolution, the original children of the revolution had started to die off, and those in American had been living under the constitution for a very long time. As a result, the common ideals of the antifederalists were starting to move towards similar views to the federalists, and the political public seemed to start to agree on things. Monroe’s presidency created a new era of American government, and brought a feeling of well-being to the nation.
As the United States was finally being ridden of all British control and the American government ideals were solidifying, the Monroe Doctrine was created. This acted as a precursor to extreme western expansion, and the beginning of a “new” nation. The Monroe Doctrine declared that any efforts of colonization/re-colonization from European nations would be seen as an act of aggression, and would require the involvement of the US. As the US gained credibility, land, and a new sense of individualism and pride, the beginnings of manifest-destiny could be seen. This impacted the way America interacted with other nations, and viewed itself as a superior creation, essentially developing the early principles of American exceptionalism. Through this newfound independence and self belief, the modern American nation was born.
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Honors Essay 4 - Westward Expansion & the Mexican American War
The election of Andrew Jackson brought upon the era of the “common man.” Jackson was the first president to display the unbinding effects of one's socioeconomic status at birth, and the possibilities of changing social statuses within a single lifetime. As a man born from poverty, Jackson eventually rose to be a notable lawyer and a strong leader. Through this process, he played a large role in the American Revolution. After losing his family from the repercussions of the war as a child, and being taken prisoner by the British, Jackson righty formed a strong bias against Britain. These life experiences and events from his past were clearly still present in his mindset, as many of his presidential decisions and reforms were in disdain of the British. During the Revolutionary War, his efficacious leadership skills were seen in the battle of New Orleans. He effectively gathered and trained an army of common citizens in one month. These soldiers were derived from a multitude of social classes, from slaves to slave owners. The fact that he was able to unite individuals of such different class levels within such a low time frame, then to continue defeat an army twice its size, proves that Jackson truly was the Savior of New Orleans.
After the preceding “era of good feelings” and shift in political ideologies, Andrew Jackson re-vamped anti-federalist views once again. His interests were in the common man, and the idea of manifest destiny. Manifest destiny included the patronage of commoners rather than the fat cats of banks, the dismissal of National banks, westward expansion, laissez (letting the American economy fork on it’s own), the strict construction of state rights, and states control over problems unspecified in the constitution; therefor lowering the amount of work done on a national level. These actions re-established the revolutionary spirit that was once felt by the American people, and developed the political views we now recognize as democratic. As a result, history named Andrew Jackson the “Father of Democracy,” though there was one other main contributor to the formation of the Democratic Party. Jackson may have had influential power and followers, but he wasn’t the “brain” to the operation. Martin van Buren was a politician who immensely aided campaign of Andrew Jackson, and the Democratic Party. With his help, the ideals of Democracy were solidified, and this political party exponentially rose in popularity.
Andrew Jackson displayed multiple differences when compared to the previous Virginian presidents through both him political actions, and personality. Known as “Old Hickory,” Jackson’s nickname furthermore solidified his offbeat identity, and nature. Because he was the first western born president, he displayed different presidential ideals then those of the Virginia dynasty. Instead of representing the higher-class citizens and those with a greater economic status, Jackson was seen to represent people like himself, the common ‘white’ man who worked for their life successes. He was a rough man connected with the newly claimed American frontier, who represented the Republican farmers. Furthermore, he had distaste for the natives, and their independence. Jackson was known as an ‘Indian fighter,’ for he disliked their obstruction of America’s expansion. One example of his hostility towards the natives was his use of warfare to deny them a state in the union. Though the Senate had approved the Indian’s petition, Jackson firmly denied it, and used his executive power to cease the appeal. These actions are very ironic, for later he adopted a child of Indian heritage. On multiple occasions, people were astonished his behavior and actions; furthermore Jackson was viewed as a bit of a wildcat, and was eventually deemed unfit for presidency.
Jackson’s anti-federalist views clashed with the federal government’s power over the banking system. As a man of the frontier and a farmer, his hatred towards national banks was further exemplified. Throughout history, both modern and historical, it can be seen that farmers extremely dislike banks. Farmers’ businesses rely completely on their crops, and the amount of land they have accessible to them. Therefore, a farmer’s money in essentially in the land. In order to expand their land, farmers must take out loans, and work in a deficit until they pay back their loans, and the interest on them. However banks make their money off a loans’ interest, and hold the ability to raise the interest to any amount they please. In consequence, bankers charge far too high of interest payments, and farmers are unable to afford such prices. This system leaves farmers without the money they need, and is rightfully aggravating to those looking for a simple loan. In the case of The Bank War, this was exactly what was happening during the use of the 2nd National Bank. The Anti-Federalist views of Andrew Jackson and the New Democratic Party preferred individual and local state banks, where farmers and those working in efforts of western expansion could benefit from lower interest rates. When the charter for the 2nd National Bank ended, two opposing parties formed on the situation. Nicholas Biddle (previous leader of 2nd National Bank) rallied for the creation of a 3rd National Bank, which would continue the previous federalist banking methods. However through personal grudges and cultural clashes, the bill was vetoed by President Jackson and his own ‘pet banks’ were introduced. The intentions of these banks were to help the American people, however realistically they only led the country into a tough economic downturn. Because these new banks didn’t have the same regulations as the previous federal banks, they possessed the capability to over-lend money, and essentially give out money for which they didn’t have. Because the banks were working off a negative net worth, they were unable to give back money to those who had originally stored it in the system, ultimately placing America in a recession. These actions by Jackson are viewed as an abuse of power, and an overall his own panic and crash of economy. Once the system was in place, it was clear that the regulation of so many small banks was extremely difficult, and the banks weren’t able to watch the bottom line of held currency. In addition, this caused an upraise in the worth of gold and silver, as government currency was seen to be nothing more than a promissory note for rarity. In all, Jackson’s creation of individual and local banks was in efforts of helping the common man and political concerns, however ultimately it was learned that well regulated banks are realistically better for a country’s economy.
As American continued to expand, advancements in multiple areas of everyday life were starting to arise. In the agricultural field, farming advancements were prevalent, ultimately making fieldwork easier and more efficient. As factories began to encourage the commercial agriculture business, the need for new tools and methods were on high demand. Machines allowed more land to fall under cultivation. Plows were manufactured out of metal, and quickly replaced the use of livestock as machinery. Specific inventions such as the cotton gin increased the demand of cotton materials because of its easy production, and helped boost the economy. Though these advancements all aided the expansion of America by making agriculture an overall easier production, it took its toll on the environment. Eventually causing the Dust Bowl of the 1930’s, this extreme use of the lands and fields in short amounts of time caused a weakening of the soil. In consequence, this event produced many more reasons for the exploration of new land.
Similar to the agricultural field, industrial technology redefined the accessibility, and functionality of items. More specifically, tin cans, ice cutters, vulcanized rubber, and the sewing machine modernized the everyday lives of Americans. The ice cutter and tin cans allowed for the portable preservation of food, making life easier for a nation ‘on the move.’ Tin cans made it easy to store and travel with foods for long amounts of time without them spoiling, and the creation of the ice cutter made portable cold storage possible, as you could harvest ice at any point. This allowed for a greater variety of foods to be traveled with, and made the accessibility of ice a possibility for anyone. The invention of the sewing machine and vulcanized rubber acted as advancement in the field of industrialism. Vulcanized rubber was able to last through any temperature changes, proving to be a good material for items such as tires, moving parts in machinery, and the soles of shoes. Lastly, the sewing machine made it possible for anyone to create his or her own clothing products. This made the textile industry portable, and allowed people to save money by making things on their own.
Methods of transportation also developed significantly during this time, making Westward Expansion and travel much easier. The creation of the steam engine revolutionized the transport of goods by the use of steamboats, making upstream travel a possibility, and lowering the time required for transport. Multiple canals were created by connecting waterways, therefore making water travel more popular, and farther reaching. In the case of civilian transport, the use of horses and carriages were both slow and unreliable, causing trains, railroads, and paved roads to become more prevalent. Through these methods, trades could be made faster. Even a surge in bridge development was seen, as they made movement easier and more efficient. With these new methods of transportation, people could continue to travel farther away from New England, ultimately causing population changes.
Lastly, methods of communication were seen to develop immensely. The creation and use of Morse code and telegraphs made long distance communication exceedingly faster. Compared to the common mail system, telegraphs were both inexpensive and quick. Not only did they act as a method of personal communication, but also effected business communication, ultimately improving commerce.
As a result of America’s continued successes such as The Revolution, the War of 1812, the ‘Era of Good Feelings’, and the Monroe Doctrine, the values of American Exceptionalism was on the rise. In the eyes of Americans, the United States seemed to be a higher order entity, which couldn’t fall. This ideology led to the conception of Manifest Destiny, and the inevitable expansion of America. Manifest Destiny has three main themes. The first theme being that it was the duty of the American people to spread their virtue, and clone the rest of the world to America’s image. The second theme expressed the dignity and virtue of the American people, formerly described as American Exceptionalism. Lastly, Manifest Destiny assured that America’s fate was to do God’s will. Overall, this way of thinking relied on the fact that America was destined to hold such land, and God intended for America to claim power over North America. Because of Manifest Destiny, there was the belief that the eviction of the Indians was completely justified, and the Mexican American War was a result of our ‘right’ to take over the land for America.
As the belief in Manifest Destiny continued to prevail throughout the minds of American citizens, Americans found it their duty to continue to develop and expand…even past the land rightfully bought during the Louisiana Purchase. As American citizens began to enter territories of Mexico (land now known as Texas), they became American immigrants. However, the combination of their honest intentions and Mexico’s newly found independence from Spain formed a warm welcome from the Mexican government. They encouraged the settlement in their newly obtained underdeveloped areas, however did expect the American immigrants to comply with their government, and abide by their rules. The American immigrants fully understood their role as settlers, and complied with the wishes of the Mexican government; however problems arose when American immigrants became the majority of the population in Texas, and Mexican citizens the minority.
The uneven population of American immigrants compared to Mexican citizens residing in Texas, led to its independence. As the expansion of America caused its land to center around the territories of Texas, majority of those living in Texas decided they didn’t want to be a part of Mexico. Through many small and spread out battles, independence was gained, and the Lone Star Republic of Texas was formed. Texas maintained this autonomy for almost ten years, while continuously accepting more American immigrants; however once almost all of Texas’s citizens were Americans, the proposition that Texas be annexed into the United States union was formed. Though it seemed to be a harmless and unanimous decision, Mexico would see this as an act of war should America agree; for they still viewed Texas to be a part of their country, and the Mexican government continuously encouraged border raids. Nevertheless, President Polk, a war hawk president, allowed the annexation of Texas in 1845. As a result, Mexico declared war on the Unites States, for reasons of the population, and the battle of Rio Grande. The war turned out to be in favor of America, for two main reasons. First, the American General Winfield Scott had a one-of-a-kind warfare tactics, setting the American military apart ahead. Instead of the fighting at the border as Mexico had anticipated, he invaded the capital city, and overtook the land. Secondly, the sheer amount of American immigrants living in Mexico made it extremely difficult for them to rally support for the war, creating an immense amount of internal conflict.
As a result of the advanced American warfare tactics, the colonization of Mexico, and The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the Mexican American war ended. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was created between Mexico and the Unites States, giving America new territories: California, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, New Mexico, and most of Arizona, which would later be bought through the Gadsden Purchase in 1853, in efforts of expanding the Transcontinental Railway. Also in the treaty, borders were established at the Rio Grande River, and ‘war reparations’ were to be given to Mexico as an attempt to preserve their friendship with America. The aftermath of the population in these newly American territories resulted in previously Mexican citizens moving back within Mexican borders, or becoming official U.S. citizens. Later on, America’s newly gained territory would cause conflicts that would eventually create the Civil War; for Texas was deemed a slave state upon annexation, it caused there to be an unequal amount of slave and free states, acting as the ultimate catalyst to the Civil War.
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After the preceding “era of good feelings” and shift in political ideologies, Andrew Jackson re-vamped anti-federalist views once again. His interests were in the common man, and the idea of manifest destiny. Manifest destiny included the patronage of commoners rather than the fat cats of banks, the dismissal of National banks, westward expansion, laissez (letting the American economy fork on it’s own), the strict construction of state rights, and states control over problems unspecified in the constitution; therefor lowering the amount of work done on a national level. These actions re-established the revolutionary spirit that was once felt by the American people, and developed the political views we now recognize as democratic. As a result, history named Andrew Jackson the “Father of Democracy,” though there was one other main contributor to the formation of the Democratic Party. Jackson may have had influential power and followers, but he wasn’t the “brain” to the operation. Martin van Buren was a politician who immensely aided campaign of Andrew Jackson, and the Democratic Party. With his help, the ideals of Democracy were solidified, and this political party exponentially rose in popularity.
Andrew Jackson displayed multiple differences when compared to the previous Virginian presidents through both him political actions, and personality. Known as “Old Hickory,” Jackson’s nickname furthermore solidified his offbeat identity, and nature. Because he was the first western born president, he displayed different presidential ideals then those of the Virginia dynasty. Instead of representing the higher-class citizens and those with a greater economic status, Jackson was seen to represent people like himself, the common ‘white’ man who worked for their life successes. He was a rough man connected with the newly claimed American frontier, who represented the Republican farmers. Furthermore, he had distaste for the natives, and their independence. Jackson was known as an ‘Indian fighter,’ for he disliked their obstruction of America’s expansion. One example of his hostility towards the natives was his use of warfare to deny them a state in the union. Though the Senate had approved the Indian’s petition, Jackson firmly denied it, and used his executive power to cease the appeal. These actions are very ironic, for later he adopted a child of Indian heritage. On multiple occasions, people were astonished his behavior and actions; furthermore Jackson was viewed as a bit of a wildcat, and was eventually deemed unfit for presidency.
Jackson’s anti-federalist views clashed with the federal government’s power over the banking system. As a man of the frontier and a farmer, his hatred towards national banks was further exemplified. Throughout history, both modern and historical, it can be seen that farmers extremely dislike banks. Farmers’ businesses rely completely on their crops, and the amount of land they have accessible to them. Therefore, a farmer’s money in essentially in the land. In order to expand their land, farmers must take out loans, and work in a deficit until they pay back their loans, and the interest on them. However banks make their money off a loans’ interest, and hold the ability to raise the interest to any amount they please. In consequence, bankers charge far too high of interest payments, and farmers are unable to afford such prices. This system leaves farmers without the money they need, and is rightfully aggravating to those looking for a simple loan. In the case of The Bank War, this was exactly what was happening during the use of the 2nd National Bank. The Anti-Federalist views of Andrew Jackson and the New Democratic Party preferred individual and local state banks, where farmers and those working in efforts of western expansion could benefit from lower interest rates. When the charter for the 2nd National Bank ended, two opposing parties formed on the situation. Nicholas Biddle (previous leader of 2nd National Bank) rallied for the creation of a 3rd National Bank, which would continue the previous federalist banking methods. However through personal grudges and cultural clashes, the bill was vetoed by President Jackson and his own ‘pet banks’ were introduced. The intentions of these banks were to help the American people, however realistically they only led the country into a tough economic downturn. Because these new banks didn’t have the same regulations as the previous federal banks, they possessed the capability to over-lend money, and essentially give out money for which they didn’t have. Because the banks were working off a negative net worth, they were unable to give back money to those who had originally stored it in the system, ultimately placing America in a recession. These actions by Jackson are viewed as an abuse of power, and an overall his own panic and crash of economy. Once the system was in place, it was clear that the regulation of so many small banks was extremely difficult, and the banks weren’t able to watch the bottom line of held currency. In addition, this caused an upraise in the worth of gold and silver, as government currency was seen to be nothing more than a promissory note for rarity. In all, Jackson’s creation of individual and local banks was in efforts of helping the common man and political concerns, however ultimately it was learned that well regulated banks are realistically better for a country’s economy.
As American continued to expand, advancements in multiple areas of everyday life were starting to arise. In the agricultural field, farming advancements were prevalent, ultimately making fieldwork easier and more efficient. As factories began to encourage the commercial agriculture business, the need for new tools and methods were on high demand. Machines allowed more land to fall under cultivation. Plows were manufactured out of metal, and quickly replaced the use of livestock as machinery. Specific inventions such as the cotton gin increased the demand of cotton materials because of its easy production, and helped boost the economy. Though these advancements all aided the expansion of America by making agriculture an overall easier production, it took its toll on the environment. Eventually causing the Dust Bowl of the 1930’s, this extreme use of the lands and fields in short amounts of time caused a weakening of the soil. In consequence, this event produced many more reasons for the exploration of new land.
Similar to the agricultural field, industrial technology redefined the accessibility, and functionality of items. More specifically, tin cans, ice cutters, vulcanized rubber, and the sewing machine modernized the everyday lives of Americans. The ice cutter and tin cans allowed for the portable preservation of food, making life easier for a nation ‘on the move.’ Tin cans made it easy to store and travel with foods for long amounts of time without them spoiling, and the creation of the ice cutter made portable cold storage possible, as you could harvest ice at any point. This allowed for a greater variety of foods to be traveled with, and made the accessibility of ice a possibility for anyone. The invention of the sewing machine and vulcanized rubber acted as advancement in the field of industrialism. Vulcanized rubber was able to last through any temperature changes, proving to be a good material for items such as tires, moving parts in machinery, and the soles of shoes. Lastly, the sewing machine made it possible for anyone to create his or her own clothing products. This made the textile industry portable, and allowed people to save money by making things on their own.
Methods of transportation also developed significantly during this time, making Westward Expansion and travel much easier. The creation of the steam engine revolutionized the transport of goods by the use of steamboats, making upstream travel a possibility, and lowering the time required for transport. Multiple canals were created by connecting waterways, therefore making water travel more popular, and farther reaching. In the case of civilian transport, the use of horses and carriages were both slow and unreliable, causing trains, railroads, and paved roads to become more prevalent. Through these methods, trades could be made faster. Even a surge in bridge development was seen, as they made movement easier and more efficient. With these new methods of transportation, people could continue to travel farther away from New England, ultimately causing population changes.
Lastly, methods of communication were seen to develop immensely. The creation and use of Morse code and telegraphs made long distance communication exceedingly faster. Compared to the common mail system, telegraphs were both inexpensive and quick. Not only did they act as a method of personal communication, but also effected business communication, ultimately improving commerce.
As a result of America’s continued successes such as The Revolution, the War of 1812, the ‘Era of Good Feelings’, and the Monroe Doctrine, the values of American Exceptionalism was on the rise. In the eyes of Americans, the United States seemed to be a higher order entity, which couldn’t fall. This ideology led to the conception of Manifest Destiny, and the inevitable expansion of America. Manifest Destiny has three main themes. The first theme being that it was the duty of the American people to spread their virtue, and clone the rest of the world to America’s image. The second theme expressed the dignity and virtue of the American people, formerly described as American Exceptionalism. Lastly, Manifest Destiny assured that America’s fate was to do God’s will. Overall, this way of thinking relied on the fact that America was destined to hold such land, and God intended for America to claim power over North America. Because of Manifest Destiny, there was the belief that the eviction of the Indians was completely justified, and the Mexican American War was a result of our ‘right’ to take over the land for America.
As the belief in Manifest Destiny continued to prevail throughout the minds of American citizens, Americans found it their duty to continue to develop and expand…even past the land rightfully bought during the Louisiana Purchase. As American citizens began to enter territories of Mexico (land now known as Texas), they became American immigrants. However, the combination of their honest intentions and Mexico’s newly found independence from Spain formed a warm welcome from the Mexican government. They encouraged the settlement in their newly obtained underdeveloped areas, however did expect the American immigrants to comply with their government, and abide by their rules. The American immigrants fully understood their role as settlers, and complied with the wishes of the Mexican government; however problems arose when American immigrants became the majority of the population in Texas, and Mexican citizens the minority.
The uneven population of American immigrants compared to Mexican citizens residing in Texas, led to its independence. As the expansion of America caused its land to center around the territories of Texas, majority of those living in Texas decided they didn’t want to be a part of Mexico. Through many small and spread out battles, independence was gained, and the Lone Star Republic of Texas was formed. Texas maintained this autonomy for almost ten years, while continuously accepting more American immigrants; however once almost all of Texas’s citizens were Americans, the proposition that Texas be annexed into the United States union was formed. Though it seemed to be a harmless and unanimous decision, Mexico would see this as an act of war should America agree; for they still viewed Texas to be a part of their country, and the Mexican government continuously encouraged border raids. Nevertheless, President Polk, a war hawk president, allowed the annexation of Texas in 1845. As a result, Mexico declared war on the Unites States, for reasons of the population, and the battle of Rio Grande. The war turned out to be in favor of America, for two main reasons. First, the American General Winfield Scott had a one-of-a-kind warfare tactics, setting the American military apart ahead. Instead of the fighting at the border as Mexico had anticipated, he invaded the capital city, and overtook the land. Secondly, the sheer amount of American immigrants living in Mexico made it extremely difficult for them to rally support for the war, creating an immense amount of internal conflict.
As a result of the advanced American warfare tactics, the colonization of Mexico, and The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the Mexican American war ended. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was created between Mexico and the Unites States, giving America new territories: California, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, New Mexico, and most of Arizona, which would later be bought through the Gadsden Purchase in 1853, in efforts of expanding the Transcontinental Railway. Also in the treaty, borders were established at the Rio Grande River, and ‘war reparations’ were to be given to Mexico as an attempt to preserve their friendship with America. The aftermath of the population in these newly American territories resulted in previously Mexican citizens moving back within Mexican borders, or becoming official U.S. citizens. Later on, America’s newly gained territory would cause conflicts that would eventually create the Civil War; for Texas was deemed a slave state upon annexation, it caused there to be an unequal amount of slave and free states, acting as the ultimate catalyst to the Civil War.
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Honors Essay 5 - The Road to the Civil War
The effects the Louisiana Purchase and the onslaught of the Mexican American war, ultimately caused Westward Expansion to induce the Civil War. With the continuous addition of territories to America, new states formed pressure within the government; for each new state begged the decision regarding slavery. These decisions were ultimately in efforts of creating a balanced amount of slave, and slave free states, in order to continue harmony within the country. Ensuing the Mexican American War, the annexation of Texas caused a switch from its previously free identity, and took upon the role of a slave state. However, this made many of the Northerners feel as though America had fought the war for nothing, and in the end only promoted the existence of slavery. In addition, a similar debate arose during the Gold Rush, as the annexation of California forced the United States Government to deal with the slavery status of newly developed western territories. As a result, it was seen that this extreme expansion had caused America to take on something larger than they had expected, and begged for a resolution over the debate of slavery.
Previous to the Mexican American War, the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was created in reaction to the Louisiana Purchase. This compromise annexed Missouri into the union, however unintentionally created conflict between the North and the South, for it’s position on slavery was debatable. Based on the fact that Maine too wanted to be annexed into the union, it’s Northern stature provided them with a slave free identity, and in order to continue the balanced amount of pro and anti slave state, Missouri was deemed a slave state. Following this agreement, the Missouri Compromise also outlined the amendment of the 30° 36’ parallel line. This amendment to the compromise excluded slavery from territories north of the 30° 36’ parallel line from the newly bought Louisiana Purchase land. However it still allowed Missouri to use slaves, even though the state was north of the limit. The actual creation of the parallel was based of the previously known Mason Dixon Line, which was created as a resolution to a colonial American dispute over borders. Because of it’s placement between the northern and southern states and it’s clear borders, it was extended into the 30° 36’ amendment. Though this border was naturally enforced by individual preference, it was eventually also backed by the law; moreover, the creation of the 30° 36’ parallel line was through a process of enforcement known as de facto de juno.
Following the Mexican American War and the California Gold Rush, Henry Clay, John Calhoun, and Daniel Webster formed the Compromise of 1850, in efforts of resolving tensions formed over slavery. Henry Clay, a notable community builder, was able to act as a middleman and unite both Calhoun and Webster. Between Calhoun’s southern pro-slave ideals, and Webster’s anti-slave northern views, multiple bills in efforts of a widespread compromise were created. Based on the change in population in the west from the Gold Rush and the Mexican American War, one of the main points of the compromise was that California would be brought into the unions as a free state, and Texas as a slave state. New Mexico and Utah were given popular sovereignty, allowing them to vote on their future regarding slavery, and slave trading was banned in Washington DC. Lastly, the Compromise of 1850 created the highly controversial Fugitive Slave Law. This law pronounced that any slaves who had escaped to the North must legally be returned, even if they had been previously deemed free. This law created controversy based on the fact that documented free slaves would be unfairly put back into the system through unlawful acts by Southern officials, and slaves weren’t given the right to testify for themselves.
The creation of the Fugitive Slave Law was extremely displeasing to the North, and continued to fuel the debate over slavery. The Fugitive Slave Law acted as salt to a wound, for everything the Northerners were against was being brought to their land, and they were forced to contribute to slavery. Furthermore, the abolitionists of the North created local Personal Liberty Laws in efforts of counteracting the South’s attempt to unfairly claim African Americans. These laws were successful within their territories, and exemplified the true frothiness of the North.
At the time of Kansas’s annexation after being carved out from Nebraskan land, Senator Stephen Douglas proposed the use of popular sovereignty in 1954 through the Kansas-Nebraska Act, to determine the slave identity of new territories. Popular sovereignty outlined new methods of determining if a state would be free or not, by letting the population of the state vote. Through this approach, states were able to form their own decisions. However if Nebraska and Kansas decided to be pro-slavery, their decision would go against the use of the 30° 36’ parallel line, and defy both the Missouri Compromise, and the Compromise of 1950. This led to an increase of animosity from the North, and continued infringements of the Fugitive Slave Law. Based on the ratification of the Kansas-Nebraska act, both Southerners and Northerners attempted to populate Kansas. This was in efforts of swaying the vote to either favor the North or the South. However, two divergent societies both residing in a single state led to many violent political confrontations, known as Bleeding Kansas. Based on the even votes, Kansas was deemed undecided and remained that way even until the start of the Civil War. Though the Kansas-Nebraska Act was created by Douglas to open new farms and create a Transcontinental Railroad, it aided the North’s acrimony towards the South, and led to the brutal conflict over Kansas.
The North’s reaction to Bleeding Kansas resulted in the Abolitionist Movement, which was comprised of both violent and controlled protests. In the case of violence, the angry and malicious John Brown led an abolitionist rebellion, within Kansas’s territory. As a man who believed in physical violence and held personal grudges against the South, Brown led many battles against the Southerners, and killed pro-slavery individuals. Nat Turner, a slave from the South, effectively evoked fear in the eyes of the Southern slave owners. His successful slave rebellion killed many pro-slavery activists, and effectively portrayed the capability of the slaves to surmount the oppression of the white men. The Abolitionist Movement also existed within controlled protests, using propaganda and literature to effectively fuel the North’s aversion to slavery. Former slave Fredrick Douglas, skilled in speech and writing, escaped from the South and was quickly inspired by the Abolitionist Movement. He created his own newspaper based on The Liberator by William Lloyd Garrison, and many were extremely impressed by his academic abilities, considering his enslaved upbringing. In addition to the works of Fredrick Douglas and William Lloyd Garrison, the book Uncle Tom’s Cabin acted as one the most historical pieces of literature of the time. Praised by the North, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and The Liberator laid the groundwork for the civil war.
Similar to Nat Turner, Dred Scott was a southern slave who fought for his rights; however Scott was unsuccessful. Scott attempted to sue for his and his family’s freedom, taking his case all the way to the Supreme Court. In this case known as ‘Dred Scott vs. Sandford’ Scott argued that when traveling through free states, he and his family should technically be emancipated. The Supreme Court denied his case, for the court believed that African Americans couldn’t be American citizens, therefore they didn’t have the right to testify in court. In addition, the Supreme Court claimed that the Federal Government didn’t have the authority to prohibit slavery, and deemed the Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional. Overall, the Supreme Court’s decision outlined its disregard of a compromise, and its position that color determined whether or not one was a slave, no matter the territory one was in, or amount of time they were there for. This decision by the Supreme Court was seen as ill advised, for it threatened legally free African Americans, further enraging the North.
As the dispute over slavery continued to unfold, the presence of Abraham Lincoln began to make a difference to the controversial topic. The election for the position of Illinois Senator pitted Lincoln and Stephen Douglas against each other, and brought upon the Lincoln-Douglas debates. Within the debates, Douglas pronounced that states should be given the right to decide whether or not they support slavery, whereas Lincoln completely opposed such acts. This series of seven debates regarding slavery were in efforts of gaining support and votes, however eventually led to Lincoln’s gain of national significance, and popularity. Even though Lincoln’s roots were from the agricultural section of America, his federally conservative and capitalistic ideals named him as the father of the Republican Party. Lincoln valued the beliefs of free labor, and believed that everyone had the right to be successful, effectively communicating his stance opposing slavery. Moreover, he had personal connections to the ruthless effects of slavery, and believed that the practice was morally wrong. Lincoln’s growing recognition as a politician led to his Presidential nomination in 1860. Based on Lincoln’s endless support from the North, he gained 40% of the electoral votes, and dominated as the only Republican candidate. As a method of gaining Southern votes, he avoided outright abolishing the idea of slavery, and presented the idea of stopping the expansion of America. His popularity within the Democratic Party wasn’t immense, however he ended with enough votes to win the election. Following Lincoln’s gain of Presidential power, the South immediately understood the implications of living under the Federal rule of an anti-slave advocate.
Immediately ensuing the election of President Lincoln, the southern states seceded from the union. Based on the tensions that had been built up for years, the South created an independent confederation known as the Confederate Union, and eventually declared war on America. These rash decision are viewed by some as an overreaction on the South’s part; for there were no immediate actions from Lincoln to prohibit slavery, and the Democrats still had a large enough amount of political power to hinder such attempts. However, 11 states starting with South Carolina seceded to eliminate the oppression of their rights, and the North’s reaction was very limited. Based on the presumption that the South wouldn’t be able to successfully leave the union, Lincoln abstained from taking action. The South’s attack on the North was based off of events at Fort Sumter, South Carolina. The closeness of the North pestered the South to the point of aggression, sparking the Civil War. Some believe that the North taunted the South to claim higher moral ground; however based on the facts, he South initiated the Civil War.
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Previous to the Mexican American War, the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was created in reaction to the Louisiana Purchase. This compromise annexed Missouri into the union, however unintentionally created conflict between the North and the South, for it’s position on slavery was debatable. Based on the fact that Maine too wanted to be annexed into the union, it’s Northern stature provided them with a slave free identity, and in order to continue the balanced amount of pro and anti slave state, Missouri was deemed a slave state. Following this agreement, the Missouri Compromise also outlined the amendment of the 30° 36’ parallel line. This amendment to the compromise excluded slavery from territories north of the 30° 36’ parallel line from the newly bought Louisiana Purchase land. However it still allowed Missouri to use slaves, even though the state was north of the limit. The actual creation of the parallel was based of the previously known Mason Dixon Line, which was created as a resolution to a colonial American dispute over borders. Because of it’s placement between the northern and southern states and it’s clear borders, it was extended into the 30° 36’ amendment. Though this border was naturally enforced by individual preference, it was eventually also backed by the law; moreover, the creation of the 30° 36’ parallel line was through a process of enforcement known as de facto de juno.
Following the Mexican American War and the California Gold Rush, Henry Clay, John Calhoun, and Daniel Webster formed the Compromise of 1850, in efforts of resolving tensions formed over slavery. Henry Clay, a notable community builder, was able to act as a middleman and unite both Calhoun and Webster. Between Calhoun’s southern pro-slave ideals, and Webster’s anti-slave northern views, multiple bills in efforts of a widespread compromise were created. Based on the change in population in the west from the Gold Rush and the Mexican American War, one of the main points of the compromise was that California would be brought into the unions as a free state, and Texas as a slave state. New Mexico and Utah were given popular sovereignty, allowing them to vote on their future regarding slavery, and slave trading was banned in Washington DC. Lastly, the Compromise of 1850 created the highly controversial Fugitive Slave Law. This law pronounced that any slaves who had escaped to the North must legally be returned, even if they had been previously deemed free. This law created controversy based on the fact that documented free slaves would be unfairly put back into the system through unlawful acts by Southern officials, and slaves weren’t given the right to testify for themselves.
The creation of the Fugitive Slave Law was extremely displeasing to the North, and continued to fuel the debate over slavery. The Fugitive Slave Law acted as salt to a wound, for everything the Northerners were against was being brought to their land, and they were forced to contribute to slavery. Furthermore, the abolitionists of the North created local Personal Liberty Laws in efforts of counteracting the South’s attempt to unfairly claim African Americans. These laws were successful within their territories, and exemplified the true frothiness of the North.
At the time of Kansas’s annexation after being carved out from Nebraskan land, Senator Stephen Douglas proposed the use of popular sovereignty in 1954 through the Kansas-Nebraska Act, to determine the slave identity of new territories. Popular sovereignty outlined new methods of determining if a state would be free or not, by letting the population of the state vote. Through this approach, states were able to form their own decisions. However if Nebraska and Kansas decided to be pro-slavery, their decision would go against the use of the 30° 36’ parallel line, and defy both the Missouri Compromise, and the Compromise of 1950. This led to an increase of animosity from the North, and continued infringements of the Fugitive Slave Law. Based on the ratification of the Kansas-Nebraska act, both Southerners and Northerners attempted to populate Kansas. This was in efforts of swaying the vote to either favor the North or the South. However, two divergent societies both residing in a single state led to many violent political confrontations, known as Bleeding Kansas. Based on the even votes, Kansas was deemed undecided and remained that way even until the start of the Civil War. Though the Kansas-Nebraska Act was created by Douglas to open new farms and create a Transcontinental Railroad, it aided the North’s acrimony towards the South, and led to the brutal conflict over Kansas.
The North’s reaction to Bleeding Kansas resulted in the Abolitionist Movement, which was comprised of both violent and controlled protests. In the case of violence, the angry and malicious John Brown led an abolitionist rebellion, within Kansas’s territory. As a man who believed in physical violence and held personal grudges against the South, Brown led many battles against the Southerners, and killed pro-slavery individuals. Nat Turner, a slave from the South, effectively evoked fear in the eyes of the Southern slave owners. His successful slave rebellion killed many pro-slavery activists, and effectively portrayed the capability of the slaves to surmount the oppression of the white men. The Abolitionist Movement also existed within controlled protests, using propaganda and literature to effectively fuel the North’s aversion to slavery. Former slave Fredrick Douglas, skilled in speech and writing, escaped from the South and was quickly inspired by the Abolitionist Movement. He created his own newspaper based on The Liberator by William Lloyd Garrison, and many were extremely impressed by his academic abilities, considering his enslaved upbringing. In addition to the works of Fredrick Douglas and William Lloyd Garrison, the book Uncle Tom’s Cabin acted as one the most historical pieces of literature of the time. Praised by the North, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, and The Liberator laid the groundwork for the civil war.
Similar to Nat Turner, Dred Scott was a southern slave who fought for his rights; however Scott was unsuccessful. Scott attempted to sue for his and his family’s freedom, taking his case all the way to the Supreme Court. In this case known as ‘Dred Scott vs. Sandford’ Scott argued that when traveling through free states, he and his family should technically be emancipated. The Supreme Court denied his case, for the court believed that African Americans couldn’t be American citizens, therefore they didn’t have the right to testify in court. In addition, the Supreme Court claimed that the Federal Government didn’t have the authority to prohibit slavery, and deemed the Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional. Overall, the Supreme Court’s decision outlined its disregard of a compromise, and its position that color determined whether or not one was a slave, no matter the territory one was in, or amount of time they were there for. This decision by the Supreme Court was seen as ill advised, for it threatened legally free African Americans, further enraging the North.
As the dispute over slavery continued to unfold, the presence of Abraham Lincoln began to make a difference to the controversial topic. The election for the position of Illinois Senator pitted Lincoln and Stephen Douglas against each other, and brought upon the Lincoln-Douglas debates. Within the debates, Douglas pronounced that states should be given the right to decide whether or not they support slavery, whereas Lincoln completely opposed such acts. This series of seven debates regarding slavery were in efforts of gaining support and votes, however eventually led to Lincoln’s gain of national significance, and popularity. Even though Lincoln’s roots were from the agricultural section of America, his federally conservative and capitalistic ideals named him as the father of the Republican Party. Lincoln valued the beliefs of free labor, and believed that everyone had the right to be successful, effectively communicating his stance opposing slavery. Moreover, he had personal connections to the ruthless effects of slavery, and believed that the practice was morally wrong. Lincoln’s growing recognition as a politician led to his Presidential nomination in 1860. Based on Lincoln’s endless support from the North, he gained 40% of the electoral votes, and dominated as the only Republican candidate. As a method of gaining Southern votes, he avoided outright abolishing the idea of slavery, and presented the idea of stopping the expansion of America. His popularity within the Democratic Party wasn’t immense, however he ended with enough votes to win the election. Following Lincoln’s gain of Presidential power, the South immediately understood the implications of living under the Federal rule of an anti-slave advocate.
Immediately ensuing the election of President Lincoln, the southern states seceded from the union. Based on the tensions that had been built up for years, the South created an independent confederation known as the Confederate Union, and eventually declared war on America. These rash decision are viewed by some as an overreaction on the South’s part; for there were no immediate actions from Lincoln to prohibit slavery, and the Democrats still had a large enough amount of political power to hinder such attempts. However, 11 states starting with South Carolina seceded to eliminate the oppression of their rights, and the North’s reaction was very limited. Based on the presumption that the South wouldn’t be able to successfully leave the union, Lincoln abstained from taking action. The South’s attack on the North was based off of events at Fort Sumter, South Carolina. The closeness of the North pestered the South to the point of aggression, sparking the Civil War. Some believe that the North taunted the South to claim higher moral ground; however based on the facts, he South initiated the Civil War.
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Honors Essay 6 - The Civil War and Reconstruction
The Civil War was seen to have come as a surprise to the North, leaving the South with an advantage during the beginning. The secession of the South appeared as an over reaction to Lincoln's election, for his campaign never mentioned any abolishment of slavery or slave institutions. This lead both Lincoln and the North to doubt any real progress of disestablishment. However, Lincoln’s lack of immediate action caused the confederate states near the country to form exceedingly quick. Based on the rapid changes, the North suddenly realized how strongly the South was tied to their economic system, and recognized the fact that this fight was between two different ideologies and social structures of America. Furthermore, the battles of the Civil War were seen to get bloodier and bloodier as time went on; for the seriousness of this brother vs. brother feud continued to become more personal and passionate. In addition, the ever advancing technology of the time allowed for more extreme warfare, such as the use of guns and other projectile weapons, and the use of railroads for quicker military deployment. This growth in severity caused an influx of war, and determined the South to hold the advantage at the beginning of the conflict. In the case of soldiers, Southern boys were naturally more apt to warfare and hard labor when compared to their Northern counterparts. Their elemental brute strength, and training in hunting, fighting, and trapping gave the Southern armies a dominant position when it came to combat. In addition, Southern boys were more acclimated to taking orders, and working under the authority others. Their combination of discipline and strength surpassed the qualities of Northern soldiers. As Lincoln cycled through many commanders and generals, the Confederate Army obtained some of the best, once again proving their dominance. General Robert E. Lee historically led the Confederate Army, and proved to be a much needed leader and tactician. Even the geographical layout of the Southern states was in their favor; as the horizontal rivers proved difficult for Northern armies to cross. In addition, the location of majority of the Civil War battles were fought on Southern land, making it a war of defense for the confederate states, and giving them the “home team advantage.” The South’s knowledge of the landscape allowed for immediate rewards, as they could utilize freer fighting tactics, and rely on the North’s unknowingness of the land. Though the North believed that this conflict would quickly blow over once the South realized the power of the Union army, they quickly understood their underestimate when the South opened fire during the Battle of Bullrun. Such violent warfare quickly changed this conflict regarding slavery to a full fledged war.
The Civil War began over the South’s demand for ‘states rights.’ Though slavery was a component, their argument was for freedom from the North’s oppression. On the other hand, the North was fighting to keep the Union together, however they recognized that should the South remain a part of the union, slavery either had to be completely welcomed, or completely abolished. Furthermore the Civil War began to center around the phenomenon of slavery, which had always been the core of ‘states rights’ however wasn’t recognized as such. Once this revelation dawned on the Northerners, Lincoln decided something must be done. In efforts of freeing the slaves in the South, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. This proclamation declared slaves as free, and showed the South that the North knew the true reasons for their revolt. The Emancipation Proclamation is seen to have a limited scope of action; as it only applied to the deep rooted confederate South that had seceded, and ignored the border states. This was in efforts of reducing more states from seceding and furthermore leaving the Union. By the end of the war, the slave-free South wanted to rejoin the Union with all wrongs forgotten. However, before Lincoln allowed them back into the Union, he looked to solidify their abdication by creating the 13th amendment. This stated that upon the South’s arrival back into the Union, slavery would be completely outlawed. This reconstruction amendment would be the first of three, and cleared up the foggy postwar status of the Emancipation Proclamation.
Though the South was seen to have held the advantage during the start of the war, the Union Armies began to turn the tides; the exact turning point is seen to be the Battle of Gettysburg. This battle acted as a catalyst to the North’s domination, as the Union Army was able to effectively defeat General E. Lee’s attempts to invade the North. Ulysses S. Grant would eventually play a large part in the the Union Armies to victory against the Confederacy near the end of the war, however there were many other factors that allowed the North to hold the high position during the majority of the duration of the war. One factor being the booming industry in the North. The South may have had vast farm land and hard workers, but the North contained the big cities, factories, and technological advancements. In addition, the North had a sound government structure and deep rooted nationalism, which had functioned for many years and had the support of the federal government. On the other hand, the South was still in an experimental phase, and had a leader who had been appointed. Lastly a naval blockade constructed by the Union effectively cut off Confederate access to trades. This somewhat porous strategy was quite effective, as the Union could prevent Confederate access to weapons and others war goods. Furthermore this combination of Northern advantages set the stage for Ulysses S. Grant to dominate through military forces.
President Lincoln underestimated the reconstruction and re entry of the South to a similar degree to their secession; however it’s seen that he undertook this task before the war had ended. On December 8th 1863, President Lincoln established a proclamation for the reconstruction of any areas of the Confederate states that had been occupied by Union Armies. This was in efforts of strengthening the Southern Republican party, and to end the South’s bitterness towards the North. In addition Lincoln offered amnesty to any Confederate who would testify their support of the Union and the 13th Amendment. Once 10% of males in any given Confederate state gave their oath in the presidential election of 1960, said state would once again received recognition as a part of the Union. Though it seemed like a thought out plan, Congress didn’t agree with the tolerance for Southern wrong doings. In any case, this plan was never carried through; as the assassination of President Lincoln occurred on April 15th, 1865 by John Wilkes Booth.
Though such unfortunate events left Lincoln out of the picture, progress still begged for attention. During Lincoln’s presidency the Republican Party altered dramatically; those who began to oppose Lincoln’s plan for reconstruction became known as the ‘Radical Republicans.’ Rather than allowing Southerners the chance to redeem themselves, the Radicals believed in punishment and harsh discipline. Hence the creation of the Wade-Davis Bill, and numerous Civil Rights Acts in favor of the African Americans. The Wade-Davis Bill was similar to President Lincoln’s idea of sworn devotion to the Union, however bumped the threshold up from 10% to 50%. In addition, it insisted that black males were not only to be deemed free, but also given voting rights. Lastly, the bill sought to punish those who were active in the Confederate army, and to revoke voting rights from any Confederate veterans or officials. Unlike Lincoln, the Radicals viewed the South as a foreign enemy, exaggerating the problems at hand. This made it excessively difficult for re-unionization, and angered the both the South and the newly elected President Johnson.
President Johnson was known as a Democratic Southern sympathizer who vetoed all proposed laws created by the Radical Republicans. His veto of the Wade-Davis Bill and Freedmen's Bureau enraged the Radicals; as he was denying the punishment of the Confederate soldiers, and African American’s rights to education. His rationale was that such acts hindered the true meaning of states rights, and the proposed actions were too ‘heavy.’ This further enraged the Radicals, as Johnson was allowing past slave owners to gain power once again; furthermore undermining the entire reason for the war.
In response to Johnson's actions and the continued racism in the South, the Radicals took matters into their own hands. Racism was developing into a new form a slavery, and The Black Codes instituted in the South continued inhumane treatment of African Americans. Thus the retaliation from the Radicals, by passing the 14th amendment. Instead of small civil rights acts, this amendment looked to completely equalize the rights between people, no matter the color of their skin. This second reconstruction amendment enraged the South, as they would be forced to endorse it in order to regain seats in Congress. Refusing to ratify such an Amendment, the Southerners looked for loopholes to the statement in order to continue slavery. This led the creation of organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan; for individuals could legally deprive others of liberty, however not institutions at the federal state level. Unapproving of the South’s neglect to reflect the North's obedience, the First Reconstruction Act was instituted. This split the South into military districts to be benignly occupied by the Union Army. Such actions were to peacefully police the South, and ensure the proposed actions of the 14th Amendment were being graciously complied with.
President Andrew Johnson was impeached in 1868 by the House of Representatives, for his violation of the Tenure Office Act, and his often intemperate language. His violation of the Tenure Office Act was in accordance to his dismissal of the Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton; a hard-working man who was found to be difficult to deal with. Edwin was known to undermine Johnsons policies from within the administration, causing Johnson to attempt to dismiss him. However, his dismissal was not legally justified without the approval from Congress; therefore violating the act. Though this legally was a reason from impeachment, one may wonder if it’s a large enough problem to excuse the president from his position. Moreover, common speculation infers that that these reasons for impeachment were a front; and the true reasons were because of Johnson’s ignore of reconstruction, lack of regard to the wrongdoings of the South, and the reoccurring events of slavery. In the end, the Senate voted Johnson innocent; for the crimes he was tied to weren’t actually worthy of impeachment, and the accused crimes were the result of excuses for other reasons.
Upon re-election, Andrew Johnson lost to the ever popular Civil War hero Ulysses S. Grant. Grant’s campaign slogan “Let us have peace” held the support of the Radical Republicans and majority of the population, leading to an easy election against little competition. During the election process the third reconstruction act was in the process of creation: the 15th Amendment. This amendment allowed African Americans to vote, and was eventually passed due to the support of both African Americans and the Republicans. The proposal was based off of Ulysses realization that the African Americans in the North were able to vote, however those in the South were not. Following the ratification of the 15th Amendment, the African American community allied with the Radical Republicans to being the Republican Party into power. The enactment of this amendment allowed both Grant and the Republicans to gain more support in politics, and eventually led Confederate States to be annexed into the Union.
Though the Radical Republicans and one of their members Thaddeus Stevens had good intentions in their actions, their promises were seen to go too far. Their ‘forty acres and a mule’ idea was to implement a system of redistribution of land; however this land would be given to the freedmen of the South. Overall this seems like a generous and kind promise that would reopen the Freedmen's Bureau, however it was opposed by both the North and the South. In terms of distribution, the North felt as though this went too far; and the South disagreed because they weren’t willing to give up their land. Overall the Republicans also lost interest in the idea; for this seemingly socialist idea didn’t coexist with their capitalistic views. Based on the minor support, this promise was never kept; however a new idea developed the South instead. This idea, the ‘sharecropper system,’ allowed freedmen to rent out farms, however the control of the land was still held by the white men who owned it. Rent was paid through a system of sharing the crops grown, however it was seen that the prices landowners asked for were immensely high. This created yet another form of slavery based on free labor; for the crops given to owners to use the land was often the same amount of crops produced.
During reconstruction, the South found it difficult to find those who would be loyal to them. People known as ‘scalawags’ were Southerners who supported the Republican Party and the attempts at reconstruction by the North. In addition, the South found themselves with Northerners known as ‘carpetbaggers’ entering their land for financial profits. These people were known for the carpet bags they traveled with their belongings inside of; as they left their homes in the North to profit from the war repercussions of the South. Between the South’s enemies (the carpetbaggers) advancing into their land, and those who were helping their enemies, (the scalawags) the South’s animosity was multiplied.
Cults and other secret societies developed during the time of reconstruction, as ‘white power’ was used to defy the rights given to blacks. Many members of organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) didn’t like the power given to their ex-slaves, and worked to violently oppose the North’s efforts through subversive measures. Such measures included night time terrorism such as burned crosses and the lynching of people, all under disguises to prevent punishment from Union authorities. Most acts of terrorism were targeted at both African Americans and their supporters; for such groups wished to create as much fear and angst as possible. The South’s unwillingness to change their deeply divided society and continued denunciation of African Americans left many longing to move North.
The election of 1876 between Samuel Tilden and Rutherford Hayes proved to be a very close race. Within the electoral votes Tilden held the majority, however some state’s votes were missing. In order to sway some states votes to his favor, Hayes vowed to end the Reconstruction in the United States should they give him their votes. This came as a shock to many, for Hayes was an established republican; furthermore he would be undermining the actions taken and created by his fellow republicans. Such promises were sneaky and highly disputed, for Hayes was selling out his own political party. Nonetheless Hayes ended with the most votes and was promptly elected, furthermore leading to the un-glorious end of reconstruction. The Union troops placed by the First Reconstruction Act were removed, and the South was allowed to govern the African Americans as they previously had. Upon being freed, sense of redemption overtook the South. Mockery and segregation tarnished all improvements previously made, and incessantly denounced the African American race. The Black Codes were instituted, which restricted the Civil Rights of freedmen, and Jim Crow laws restricted voting rights to the point where it was uncommon to see black voters. This new type of slavery known as segregation displayed racism on a scale previously unknown; for racism was brought to the stage, African American’s were mocked from birth based on their names, and it was shameful for whites and blacks to share any sort of public space. This shameful rise of white supremacy was clearly a step in the wrong direction towards America’s well known ‘freedom.’
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The Civil War began over the South’s demand for ‘states rights.’ Though slavery was a component, their argument was for freedom from the North’s oppression. On the other hand, the North was fighting to keep the Union together, however they recognized that should the South remain a part of the union, slavery either had to be completely welcomed, or completely abolished. Furthermore the Civil War began to center around the phenomenon of slavery, which had always been the core of ‘states rights’ however wasn’t recognized as such. Once this revelation dawned on the Northerners, Lincoln decided something must be done. In efforts of freeing the slaves in the South, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. This proclamation declared slaves as free, and showed the South that the North knew the true reasons for their revolt. The Emancipation Proclamation is seen to have a limited scope of action; as it only applied to the deep rooted confederate South that had seceded, and ignored the border states. This was in efforts of reducing more states from seceding and furthermore leaving the Union. By the end of the war, the slave-free South wanted to rejoin the Union with all wrongs forgotten. However, before Lincoln allowed them back into the Union, he looked to solidify their abdication by creating the 13th amendment. This stated that upon the South’s arrival back into the Union, slavery would be completely outlawed. This reconstruction amendment would be the first of three, and cleared up the foggy postwar status of the Emancipation Proclamation.
Though the South was seen to have held the advantage during the start of the war, the Union Armies began to turn the tides; the exact turning point is seen to be the Battle of Gettysburg. This battle acted as a catalyst to the North’s domination, as the Union Army was able to effectively defeat General E. Lee’s attempts to invade the North. Ulysses S. Grant would eventually play a large part in the the Union Armies to victory against the Confederacy near the end of the war, however there were many other factors that allowed the North to hold the high position during the majority of the duration of the war. One factor being the booming industry in the North. The South may have had vast farm land and hard workers, but the North contained the big cities, factories, and technological advancements. In addition, the North had a sound government structure and deep rooted nationalism, which had functioned for many years and had the support of the federal government. On the other hand, the South was still in an experimental phase, and had a leader who had been appointed. Lastly a naval blockade constructed by the Union effectively cut off Confederate access to trades. This somewhat porous strategy was quite effective, as the Union could prevent Confederate access to weapons and others war goods. Furthermore this combination of Northern advantages set the stage for Ulysses S. Grant to dominate through military forces.
President Lincoln underestimated the reconstruction and re entry of the South to a similar degree to their secession; however it’s seen that he undertook this task before the war had ended. On December 8th 1863, President Lincoln established a proclamation for the reconstruction of any areas of the Confederate states that had been occupied by Union Armies. This was in efforts of strengthening the Southern Republican party, and to end the South’s bitterness towards the North. In addition Lincoln offered amnesty to any Confederate who would testify their support of the Union and the 13th Amendment. Once 10% of males in any given Confederate state gave their oath in the presidential election of 1960, said state would once again received recognition as a part of the Union. Though it seemed like a thought out plan, Congress didn’t agree with the tolerance for Southern wrong doings. In any case, this plan was never carried through; as the assassination of President Lincoln occurred on April 15th, 1865 by John Wilkes Booth.
Though such unfortunate events left Lincoln out of the picture, progress still begged for attention. During Lincoln’s presidency the Republican Party altered dramatically; those who began to oppose Lincoln’s plan for reconstruction became known as the ‘Radical Republicans.’ Rather than allowing Southerners the chance to redeem themselves, the Radicals believed in punishment and harsh discipline. Hence the creation of the Wade-Davis Bill, and numerous Civil Rights Acts in favor of the African Americans. The Wade-Davis Bill was similar to President Lincoln’s idea of sworn devotion to the Union, however bumped the threshold up from 10% to 50%. In addition, it insisted that black males were not only to be deemed free, but also given voting rights. Lastly, the bill sought to punish those who were active in the Confederate army, and to revoke voting rights from any Confederate veterans or officials. Unlike Lincoln, the Radicals viewed the South as a foreign enemy, exaggerating the problems at hand. This made it excessively difficult for re-unionization, and angered the both the South and the newly elected President Johnson.
President Johnson was known as a Democratic Southern sympathizer who vetoed all proposed laws created by the Radical Republicans. His veto of the Wade-Davis Bill and Freedmen's Bureau enraged the Radicals; as he was denying the punishment of the Confederate soldiers, and African American’s rights to education. His rationale was that such acts hindered the true meaning of states rights, and the proposed actions were too ‘heavy.’ This further enraged the Radicals, as Johnson was allowing past slave owners to gain power once again; furthermore undermining the entire reason for the war.
In response to Johnson's actions and the continued racism in the South, the Radicals took matters into their own hands. Racism was developing into a new form a slavery, and The Black Codes instituted in the South continued inhumane treatment of African Americans. Thus the retaliation from the Radicals, by passing the 14th amendment. Instead of small civil rights acts, this amendment looked to completely equalize the rights between people, no matter the color of their skin. This second reconstruction amendment enraged the South, as they would be forced to endorse it in order to regain seats in Congress. Refusing to ratify such an Amendment, the Southerners looked for loopholes to the statement in order to continue slavery. This led the creation of organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan; for individuals could legally deprive others of liberty, however not institutions at the federal state level. Unapproving of the South’s neglect to reflect the North's obedience, the First Reconstruction Act was instituted. This split the South into military districts to be benignly occupied by the Union Army. Such actions were to peacefully police the South, and ensure the proposed actions of the 14th Amendment were being graciously complied with.
President Andrew Johnson was impeached in 1868 by the House of Representatives, for his violation of the Tenure Office Act, and his often intemperate language. His violation of the Tenure Office Act was in accordance to his dismissal of the Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton; a hard-working man who was found to be difficult to deal with. Edwin was known to undermine Johnsons policies from within the administration, causing Johnson to attempt to dismiss him. However, his dismissal was not legally justified without the approval from Congress; therefore violating the act. Though this legally was a reason from impeachment, one may wonder if it’s a large enough problem to excuse the president from his position. Moreover, common speculation infers that that these reasons for impeachment were a front; and the true reasons were because of Johnson’s ignore of reconstruction, lack of regard to the wrongdoings of the South, and the reoccurring events of slavery. In the end, the Senate voted Johnson innocent; for the crimes he was tied to weren’t actually worthy of impeachment, and the accused crimes were the result of excuses for other reasons.
Upon re-election, Andrew Johnson lost to the ever popular Civil War hero Ulysses S. Grant. Grant’s campaign slogan “Let us have peace” held the support of the Radical Republicans and majority of the population, leading to an easy election against little competition. During the election process the third reconstruction act was in the process of creation: the 15th Amendment. This amendment allowed African Americans to vote, and was eventually passed due to the support of both African Americans and the Republicans. The proposal was based off of Ulysses realization that the African Americans in the North were able to vote, however those in the South were not. Following the ratification of the 15th Amendment, the African American community allied with the Radical Republicans to being the Republican Party into power. The enactment of this amendment allowed both Grant and the Republicans to gain more support in politics, and eventually led Confederate States to be annexed into the Union.
Though the Radical Republicans and one of their members Thaddeus Stevens had good intentions in their actions, their promises were seen to go too far. Their ‘forty acres and a mule’ idea was to implement a system of redistribution of land; however this land would be given to the freedmen of the South. Overall this seems like a generous and kind promise that would reopen the Freedmen's Bureau, however it was opposed by both the North and the South. In terms of distribution, the North felt as though this went too far; and the South disagreed because they weren’t willing to give up their land. Overall the Republicans also lost interest in the idea; for this seemingly socialist idea didn’t coexist with their capitalistic views. Based on the minor support, this promise was never kept; however a new idea developed the South instead. This idea, the ‘sharecropper system,’ allowed freedmen to rent out farms, however the control of the land was still held by the white men who owned it. Rent was paid through a system of sharing the crops grown, however it was seen that the prices landowners asked for were immensely high. This created yet another form of slavery based on free labor; for the crops given to owners to use the land was often the same amount of crops produced.
During reconstruction, the South found it difficult to find those who would be loyal to them. People known as ‘scalawags’ were Southerners who supported the Republican Party and the attempts at reconstruction by the North. In addition, the South found themselves with Northerners known as ‘carpetbaggers’ entering their land for financial profits. These people were known for the carpet bags they traveled with their belongings inside of; as they left their homes in the North to profit from the war repercussions of the South. Between the South’s enemies (the carpetbaggers) advancing into their land, and those who were helping their enemies, (the scalawags) the South’s animosity was multiplied.
Cults and other secret societies developed during the time of reconstruction, as ‘white power’ was used to defy the rights given to blacks. Many members of organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) didn’t like the power given to their ex-slaves, and worked to violently oppose the North’s efforts through subversive measures. Such measures included night time terrorism such as burned crosses and the lynching of people, all under disguises to prevent punishment from Union authorities. Most acts of terrorism were targeted at both African Americans and their supporters; for such groups wished to create as much fear and angst as possible. The South’s unwillingness to change their deeply divided society and continued denunciation of African Americans left many longing to move North.
The election of 1876 between Samuel Tilden and Rutherford Hayes proved to be a very close race. Within the electoral votes Tilden held the majority, however some state’s votes were missing. In order to sway some states votes to his favor, Hayes vowed to end the Reconstruction in the United States should they give him their votes. This came as a shock to many, for Hayes was an established republican; furthermore he would be undermining the actions taken and created by his fellow republicans. Such promises were sneaky and highly disputed, for Hayes was selling out his own political party. Nonetheless Hayes ended with the most votes and was promptly elected, furthermore leading to the un-glorious end of reconstruction. The Union troops placed by the First Reconstruction Act were removed, and the South was allowed to govern the African Americans as they previously had. Upon being freed, sense of redemption overtook the South. Mockery and segregation tarnished all improvements previously made, and incessantly denounced the African American race. The Black Codes were instituted, which restricted the Civil Rights of freedmen, and Jim Crow laws restricted voting rights to the point where it was uncommon to see black voters. This new type of slavery known as segregation displayed racism on a scale previously unknown; for racism was brought to the stage, African American’s were mocked from birth based on their names, and it was shameful for whites and blacks to share any sort of public space. This shameful rise of white supremacy was clearly a step in the wrong direction towards America’s well known ‘freedom.’
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Honors Essay 7 - The Industrial Revolution, Labor Unions and Populism
Although America had already experienced an Industrial Revolution during the late 1700’s and early 1800’s, the Second Industrial Revolution generated an influx of technological advancements, starting in 1870 and lasting until the start of World War I. Some of the main advancements of the time such as electricity, the telephone, the typewriter, steel processes, steel products, railroad systems, and fuel sources such as coal and oil, continue to have an impact on our daily modern lives. The development of electricity made life incredibly easier and more efficient. Working during the hours of the night became a more realistic option because people didn’t have to rely on dangerous fires for light. In addition, workers could power tools and machinery with ease, as the reliance on wind and water generated power was eliminated. The telephone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell, posed a faster and more direct method of communication. Long distance communication was easily obtained through the use of telegrams, but morse code was unknown by most of the population. Compared to the time it took to decrypt and deliver telegrams or to deliver a piece of mail, telephones maximized efficiency with their almost-instantaneous connection time. The typewriter created the possibility for printing, and served as the equivalent of a computer. Rather than handwriting all documents, letters, and books, typewriters presented a faster and more efficient way to write on paper. The invention of the typewriter aided the employment of females during the time, for women proved a large capacity to work the machines. Unbelievably, the manuals of typewriters said that the typewriter was especially adapted to the fingers of females, and required less skill than playing the piano. Such misconceptions increased female employment, and in turn negatively influenced a woman’s chances at marriage based on the fact that the jobs were considered ‘awful’. The Bessemer steel refinement process allowed for a cheaper, more durable, and more accessible product than normal iron. The process converted metal into steel by blowing out the impurities. This improved the production of railroads, weapons, and machinery based on the newly accessible amount of steel created. The immense amount of advancements within industrial machines and home appliances during the time sparked the need for cheap fuel sources. Hard and soft coal was used as a power source for steel processes, and oil was often used as lubrication for machines. However, inventions such as the oil lamp presented the use of oil instead of candles or electricity. In addition, oil was able to be developed into gasoline or petroleum through refinement processes, presenting yet another alternative fuel source for machinery. Lastly, railroad expansion was a large contributing factor to the industrial revolution. Based the new advancements in metal - from iron to steel - the durability of railroad increased, and proved to be worthwhile for expansion. Though unknown by many, the railway system developed something that dramatically impacted the way we live today: standard timing. With rails now reaching great lengths between American coasts, a time system was developed to ensure coordination between schedules. This system divided the country into four different time zones, each with one hour differences. This allowed companies to make sure deliveries arrived on time, and created an organized train schedule. Interestingly, this time system wasn’t adopted by the US Government until years later, however has remained incredibly important to this day.
The spirit of the times revolved around innovation, and nobody personified it better than Thomas Edison and Andrew Carnegie. Thomas Edison, most well known for his invention of the incandescent light bulb and power system for Menlo Park, earned the title “Godfather of Industry” and “Wizard of Menlo Park.” Though he may not have invented the first lightbulb, his rendition of the product was much safer and reliable. Many Americans looked up to Edison because he was relatable. After dropping out of school when he was 12, he grew to become one of the greatest inventors in history, eventually obtaining over one thousand patents, and creating revolutionary electronics such as the phonograph, microphone, and camera. Similarly to Thomas Edison, Andrew Carnegie personified the spirit of the times --innovation, business, and money making-- and rose from being a poor young man to an opulent business tycoon. As an immigrant from Scotland, Carnegie and his parents lacked any substantial amounts of money. Before becoming involved in the steel industry, Carnegie worked in a cotton mill, and as a telegraph operator, and the Depression of 1873 caused Carnegie to open his own steel company. This company regulated all phases of steel production and export, from the gathering of raw materials, to the distribution of the final products. The success of Carnegie Steel Company built up the steel industry within America, and earned him the title “Captain of the Industry,” and millions of dollars. His hard work and determination ensured his success, and allowed him to work his way up the ladder of success. Carnegie expected hard work from his workers causing tiring hours, however they weren’t singled out; he used this principle when interacting with everyone. Carnegie loved the spirit of the [money making] game, which interesting caused him to become a philanthropist later in life rather than giving his fortune to his family. Though such actions could be interpreted as unloving, Carnegie’s intentions were to teach others hard work, and self reliance.
The rise of industrialism created a surplus of jobs for American artisans and immigrants, however it came at a cost for the workers. Artisans found themselves to be doing the work of machines by mass producing products, and becoming factory workers who quickly lost personal connections they had with their line of work. For example, rather than creating pieces of furniture, a worker would focus on one piece of the product, over and over. With multiple workers, a production line could piece together individually crafted pieces and produce anything on a very large scale. Workers were forced to endure long work days (10-12 hours), and the same mundane activity every single day. In addition, factory environments lacked health and safety requirements such as ventilation or cleanliness, causing very dangerous work areas. These jobs were considered cheap labor, as anyone who argued about their pay could be very easily replaced; such jobs required little capacity for knowledge or craftsmanship. Immigration rates increased because immigrants were willing to work for cheap wages, creating yet another reason for factories to pay any amount they wanted. Based on low wages, entire families were forced to work, and women and children began to populate factories. A rise in child labor occurred, and unfortunately children were subjected to some of the most dangerous jobs. This was based on their ability to fit into small spaces within machinery, or create small products such as bullets. Mortality rates within factories began to increase rapidly, calling attention to the horrid conditions that workers of all agers were forced to endure. In all, the industrialization of companies created institutions that believed more profit was able to be gained when the control is within the hands of the manager, and stripped workers of any control over their laborious jobs.
This period of history came to be known as “The Gilded Age” by Mark Twain. The term “gilded” was used metaphorically to allude that the time period was corrupt underneath, but posed a glittering facade. This effectively sugar coated the Industrial Revolution, and allowed outsiders to incorrectly interpret the situation. From the outside, it looked as if America flourished with technology and instantaneous wealth was possible with a little hard work (Edison & Carnegie). However in reality the working life was very hard. Working conditions were rough, wages were low, and jobs were extremely dangerous.
The new technological advancements within the Industrial Revolution allowed for the upper class to abuse the working class, essentially insinuating that the lower class citizens were not old enough to play with their toys (new tech). In response to this unequal treatment and terrible working conditions, labor unions began to form in America. These labor unions strived to allow the lower class to gain some form of control over the ‘toys’ and approach equality. Labor unions such as the American Railway Union (ARU) and the National Labor Union (NLU) strived to provide equality for certain workers. The ARU was the largest union in the late 1800’s, and was founded by Eugene Debs who later aided the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Similarly to other labor unions, the ARU fought for equal change and the fair treatment of workers. However, it only advocated for railroad workers and specifically targeted the tyranny and oppression of big companies. The ARU worked largely out of secrecy and confidentiality, based on the fact that the railway companies held immense amounts of power. If the companies were to hear about collusion against their monopolies, workers would have a bigger problem to face. The ARU’s method of objection was through protests and strikes; the Pullman Car strike is known as the ARU’s most well known demonstration. Another well known union, the NLU, was the first national labor union created, and was led by William H. Sylvis. Though it was dissolved after only eights years, it was known to pave the way for other worker’s rights organizations. The NLU allowed both skilled and unskilled workers to join in addition to reformers, however firmly denied the entrance of any women, blacks or Chinese workers. This was based off the ideology that such individuals didn’t belong amongst the ranks of the proper working class. Some of the goals the NLU had was to limit workers to an eight hour work day, create labor reforms, and give support to workers. These actions were to be arrived upon by methods of changing legislation, and peaceful negotiations. Such amicable actions set the NLU apart from other unions, as they did not believe in the use of protests or violence.
In addition to the growth of unions, strikes and workplace tragedies riddled the time period. One example is The Great Railway Strike of 1877. This strike took place in West Virginia, lasted for 45 days, and spread to many other cities and states. Based on the increase of investments into the railroad industry at the time, the expansion of tracks began to increase dramatically. However, the industry promptly crashed when the amount of railroads in the process of development became too great. As a result, the wages of railroad workers dropped. After the third pay cut of 10%, workers nationwide began to protest by sitting on the tracks, ergo blocking the trains. Local militias, state militias, and federal troops were required to end the protests, and troops often opened fire on protesters causing around 100 casualties. This event branded trikes with the misconception of being violent, when in reality the protest was peaceful until the arrival of federal troops. The Great Railroad Strike did not involve labor unions, instead they were spontaneous impromptu outbreaks within numerous cities. In addition, workplace tragedies such as the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Fire were also very common based on the dangerous workplace environments at the time. Within the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory (clothing and textiles), windows, doors, stairwells, and exits were kept locked during work hours to prevent unauthorized breaks for the workers. Interestingly, this was a prevalent practice amongst factories. The fire occurred near the only open entrance, causing hundreds of workers to be trapped inside the building. In all over 146 workers died --mostly women-- from burns, smoke inhalation, or purposely jumping out of windows in attempts of escape. This event holds the record for ‘deadliest industrial disaster’ in NYC history. Many of the women working within the textile factory were immigrants between the ages of 14 and 43 who were forced to work 52 hour work weeks, and were paid the meager amount of $7-$12 per week. This event acted as a catalyst for workplace safety rights because all lives could have been saved, had the employers kept the doors unlocked.
Large businesses such as the railroad industry held a large portion of society's wealth, and operated with intentions of gaining even more; these intentions often cause corruption in efforts of self benefit. Not only was there cooperational corruption, but also political corruption which became widely known after the 1872 Credit Mobilier scandal. This scandal was based on a contract worth $100,000,00 from the Union Pacific Railroad Company (UPRR) to the Credit Mobilier of America construction company, to build an eastward transcontinental railroad. The catch: they were both owned by the same people. Within the $100,000,000 contract, The Credit Mobilier company requested more money than they needed. Then used the additional money to buy UPRR stocks at par value. Once the money came back around, this essentially stole from the United States because it was the government who was subsidizing the railroad. This scandal was far from a mistake because the Credit Mobilier purposely attempted to throw off an investigations by selling bonds and stocks for other US congressman and politicians. The scandal was eventually exposed by The New York Sun during the presidential election campaign up Ulyssess Grant who’s vice president had bought stocks from Credit Mobilier. Because there were no laws against such actions, Credit Mobilier wasn’t punished.
Based on previous historical conflicts, it has been proven many times over that farmers hate bankers. However, the Industrial Revolution proved that farmers also have a distaste for the railroad industry. Ensuing the Civil War, the necessity of transportation heightened, especially for farmers who relied on the Transcontinental Railroad to deliver their crops. Since this was the only method of transportation that served the direct needs of people, railroad companies could essentially charge any amount wanted, and outrageously exploit their customers. The railroad system became a monopoly that took advantage of its customers based on the lack of business competitors. Though this influx of railway prices troubled all users of the railroad system, farmers were especially affected because of their reliance on the train system. Not only was the price for delivery increased, but also the storage of farm goods. Once the fees were paid, farmers were left very poor and very angry with the railroad monopolies. Such discontent eventually fueled the Granger’s movement and the creation of the populist movement.
The Grangers was an organization comprised of farmers who were oppressed by the power of the railroad industry. Founded by Oliver Kelley, the Granger Movement worked to create a community of farmers that encouraged cooperation, and discussed cheaper and more efficient methods of agriculture. However, the intentions of the group eventually evolved. The Grangers viewed the railroads to be the main source of their problems. When the burden of the railroad tycoons became too obstruent to continue, the Grangers coordinated an uprising. These revolts led to the Supreme Court cases commonly referred to as the ‘Granger Cases’. In addition, the Farmers Declaration of Independence was issued, stating that the farmers would not be associated with the monopoly tycoons. Based on the depression of 1873, the Grangers gained many members, and effectively transitioned into a group who attempted to change the railroad industry to a more equitable version of itself, and create laws that benefited the farmers.
Stemming from the motives of the Grangers, the Populist Movement originated as the ‘Farmer’s Alliance’ movement, and was created from the farmers’ attempts of gaining equality. Populism was derived from the unfair advantage the rich had over the poor, and possessed a political doctrine that was in the interest of the population. In an attempt to fix such problems, the Farmer’s Alliance branded themselves as the ‘Populist Party’ and took a stance in politics. Formed by William Jennings Bryan, the “people party” (populist party) wanted to pose its ideas in the public arena. By establishing itself as a third party in the US government system, populism gained its much needed traction.
Populism had many goals, however two of the arguably more dominant goals were graduated income tax, and secretive voting. Graduated income tax outlined the ideology that the more one makes, the more one should be taxed. Originally everyone paid the same amount of taxes which was seen as unfair by populists because overall the rich would continue to have more money. Graduated income tax balanced everyone financially. This goal was eventually reached by the 16th Amendment which established federal income tax on behalf of Congress, and was ratified in 1913. The use of the secret ballot within the US was based off the success of such ballots in Australia. These ballots essentially discouraged peer pressure when it came to voting. Previous to the use of secret ballots, political parties not only influenced, but literally voted on behalf of its members by handing out pre-filled ballots. The populist party fixed this corruption by creating ballots which achieved political privacy. The system involved a voter’s choices to be anonymous, self completed, and filled out in an area of solitude. Kentucky and Louisiana were the first states to adapt this method of voting, and now the entire US uses this system of fair elections.
Both graduated income tax and secret ballots were adapted into the US government and are continued to be used today, however some ideas from the populist party didn’t experience the same long term success. The Postal Savings Bank, temporarily promulgated by President Taft, was an idea from the farmers. It was a combination of a post office and bank, which would promote savings for the poor, and provide a safe and convenient place to store money for those who lacked access to banks. Though the idea was very popular, it was seen as unneeded when compared to the power and premier functionality of the national bank, causing the concept to lose its following. Though this business venture didn’t succeed in America, other countries continue to use this method of banking in modern day society. Another example of a miscarried idea on behalf of populism, was railroad ownership. This concept attempted to pose competition to the railroad industry by promoting ownership of railroads by private owners and the government. In the long run, this hoped to lower the train prices of the railroad tycoons. However, the implementation of this design made it clear that small railroad companies could not exist while the railroads were being nationalized. Furthermore, America learned that multiple companies competing for railroads is impossible, along with developing more railroads concurrently.
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Although America had already experienced an Industrial Revolution during the late 1700’s and early 1800’s, the Second Industrial Revolution generated an influx of technological advancements, starting in 1870 and lasting until the start of World War I. Some of the main advancements of the time such as electricity, the telephone, the typewriter, steel processes, steel products, railroad systems, and fuel sources such as coal and oil, continue to have an impact on our daily modern lives. The development of electricity made life incredibly easier and more efficient. Working during the hours of the night became a more realistic option because people didn’t have to rely on dangerous fires for light. In addition, workers could power tools and machinery with ease, as the reliance on wind and water generated power was eliminated. The telephone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell, posed a faster and more direct method of communication. Long distance communication was easily obtained through the use of telegrams, but morse code was unknown by most of the population. Compared to the time it took to decrypt and deliver telegrams or to deliver a piece of mail, telephones maximized efficiency with their almost-instantaneous connection time. The typewriter created the possibility for printing, and served as the equivalent of a computer. Rather than handwriting all documents, letters, and books, typewriters presented a faster and more efficient way to write on paper. The invention of the typewriter aided the employment of females during the time, for women proved a large capacity to work the machines. Unbelievably, the manuals of typewriters said that the typewriter was especially adapted to the fingers of females, and required less skill than playing the piano. Such misconceptions increased female employment, and in turn negatively influenced a woman’s chances at marriage based on the fact that the jobs were considered ‘awful’. The Bessemer steel refinement process allowed for a cheaper, more durable, and more accessible product than normal iron. The process converted metal into steel by blowing out the impurities. This improved the production of railroads, weapons, and machinery based on the newly accessible amount of steel created. The immense amount of advancements within industrial machines and home appliances during the time sparked the need for cheap fuel sources. Hard and soft coal was used as a power source for steel processes, and oil was often used as lubrication for machines. However, inventions such as the oil lamp presented the use of oil instead of candles or electricity. In addition, oil was able to be developed into gasoline or petroleum through refinement processes, presenting yet another alternative fuel source for machinery. Lastly, railroad expansion was a large contributing factor to the industrial revolution. Based the new advancements in metal - from iron to steel - the durability of railroad increased, and proved to be worthwhile for expansion. Though unknown by many, the railway system developed something that dramatically impacted the way we live today: standard timing. With rails now reaching great lengths between American coasts, a time system was developed to ensure coordination between schedules. This system divided the country into four different time zones, each with one hour differences. This allowed companies to make sure deliveries arrived on time, and created an organized train schedule. Interestingly, this time system wasn’t adopted by the US Government until years later, however has remained incredibly important to this day.
The spirit of the times revolved around innovation, and nobody personified it better than Thomas Edison and Andrew Carnegie. Thomas Edison, most well known for his invention of the incandescent light bulb and power system for Menlo Park, earned the title “Godfather of Industry” and “Wizard of Menlo Park.” Though he may not have invented the first lightbulb, his rendition of the product was much safer and reliable. Many Americans looked up to Edison because he was relatable. After dropping out of school when he was 12, he grew to become one of the greatest inventors in history, eventually obtaining over one thousand patents, and creating revolutionary electronics such as the phonograph, microphone, and camera. Similarly to Thomas Edison, Andrew Carnegie personified the spirit of the times --innovation, business, and money making-- and rose from being a poor young man to an opulent business tycoon. As an immigrant from Scotland, Carnegie and his parents lacked any substantial amounts of money. Before becoming involved in the steel industry, Carnegie worked in a cotton mill, and as a telegraph operator, and the Depression of 1873 caused Carnegie to open his own steel company. This company regulated all phases of steel production and export, from the gathering of raw materials, to the distribution of the final products. The success of Carnegie Steel Company built up the steel industry within America, and earned him the title “Captain of the Industry,” and millions of dollars. His hard work and determination ensured his success, and allowed him to work his way up the ladder of success. Carnegie expected hard work from his workers causing tiring hours, however they weren’t singled out; he used this principle when interacting with everyone. Carnegie loved the spirit of the [money making] game, which interesting caused him to become a philanthropist later in life rather than giving his fortune to his family. Though such actions could be interpreted as unloving, Carnegie’s intentions were to teach others hard work, and self reliance.
The rise of industrialism created a surplus of jobs for American artisans and immigrants, however it came at a cost for the workers. Artisans found themselves to be doing the work of machines by mass producing products, and becoming factory workers who quickly lost personal connections they had with their line of work. For example, rather than creating pieces of furniture, a worker would focus on one piece of the product, over and over. With multiple workers, a production line could piece together individually crafted pieces and produce anything on a very large scale. Workers were forced to endure long work days (10-12 hours), and the same mundane activity every single day. In addition, factory environments lacked health and safety requirements such as ventilation or cleanliness, causing very dangerous work areas. These jobs were considered cheap labor, as anyone who argued about their pay could be very easily replaced; such jobs required little capacity for knowledge or craftsmanship. Immigration rates increased because immigrants were willing to work for cheap wages, creating yet another reason for factories to pay any amount they wanted. Based on low wages, entire families were forced to work, and women and children began to populate factories. A rise in child labor occurred, and unfortunately children were subjected to some of the most dangerous jobs. This was based on their ability to fit into small spaces within machinery, or create small products such as bullets. Mortality rates within factories began to increase rapidly, calling attention to the horrid conditions that workers of all agers were forced to endure. In all, the industrialization of companies created institutions that believed more profit was able to be gained when the control is within the hands of the manager, and stripped workers of any control over their laborious jobs.
This period of history came to be known as “The Gilded Age” by Mark Twain. The term “gilded” was used metaphorically to allude that the time period was corrupt underneath, but posed a glittering facade. This effectively sugar coated the Industrial Revolution, and allowed outsiders to incorrectly interpret the situation. From the outside, it looked as if America flourished with technology and instantaneous wealth was possible with a little hard work (Edison & Carnegie). However in reality the working life was very hard. Working conditions were rough, wages were low, and jobs were extremely dangerous.
The new technological advancements within the Industrial Revolution allowed for the upper class to abuse the working class, essentially insinuating that the lower class citizens were not old enough to play with their toys (new tech). In response to this unequal treatment and terrible working conditions, labor unions began to form in America. These labor unions strived to allow the lower class to gain some form of control over the ‘toys’ and approach equality. Labor unions such as the American Railway Union (ARU) and the National Labor Union (NLU) strived to provide equality for certain workers. The ARU was the largest union in the late 1800’s, and was founded by Eugene Debs who later aided the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Similarly to other labor unions, the ARU fought for equal change and the fair treatment of workers. However, it only advocated for railroad workers and specifically targeted the tyranny and oppression of big companies. The ARU worked largely out of secrecy and confidentiality, based on the fact that the railway companies held immense amounts of power. If the companies were to hear about collusion against their monopolies, workers would have a bigger problem to face. The ARU’s method of objection was through protests and strikes; the Pullman Car strike is known as the ARU’s most well known demonstration. Another well known union, the NLU, was the first national labor union created, and was led by William H. Sylvis. Though it was dissolved after only eights years, it was known to pave the way for other worker’s rights organizations. The NLU allowed both skilled and unskilled workers to join in addition to reformers, however firmly denied the entrance of any women, blacks or Chinese workers. This was based off the ideology that such individuals didn’t belong amongst the ranks of the proper working class. Some of the goals the NLU had was to limit workers to an eight hour work day, create labor reforms, and give support to workers. These actions were to be arrived upon by methods of changing legislation, and peaceful negotiations. Such amicable actions set the NLU apart from other unions, as they did not believe in the use of protests or violence.
In addition to the growth of unions, strikes and workplace tragedies riddled the time period. One example is The Great Railway Strike of 1877. This strike took place in West Virginia, lasted for 45 days, and spread to many other cities and states. Based on the increase of investments into the railroad industry at the time, the expansion of tracks began to increase dramatically. However, the industry promptly crashed when the amount of railroads in the process of development became too great. As a result, the wages of railroad workers dropped. After the third pay cut of 10%, workers nationwide began to protest by sitting on the tracks, ergo blocking the trains. Local militias, state militias, and federal troops were required to end the protests, and troops often opened fire on protesters causing around 100 casualties. This event branded trikes with the misconception of being violent, when in reality the protest was peaceful until the arrival of federal troops. The Great Railroad Strike did not involve labor unions, instead they were spontaneous impromptu outbreaks within numerous cities. In addition, workplace tragedies such as the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Fire were also very common based on the dangerous workplace environments at the time. Within the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory (clothing and textiles), windows, doors, stairwells, and exits were kept locked during work hours to prevent unauthorized breaks for the workers. Interestingly, this was a prevalent practice amongst factories. The fire occurred near the only open entrance, causing hundreds of workers to be trapped inside the building. In all over 146 workers died --mostly women-- from burns, smoke inhalation, or purposely jumping out of windows in attempts of escape. This event holds the record for ‘deadliest industrial disaster’ in NYC history. Many of the women working within the textile factory were immigrants between the ages of 14 and 43 who were forced to work 52 hour work weeks, and were paid the meager amount of $7-$12 per week. This event acted as a catalyst for workplace safety rights because all lives could have been saved, had the employers kept the doors unlocked.
Large businesses such as the railroad industry held a large portion of society's wealth, and operated with intentions of gaining even more; these intentions often cause corruption in efforts of self benefit. Not only was there cooperational corruption, but also political corruption which became widely known after the 1872 Credit Mobilier scandal. This scandal was based on a contract worth $100,000,00 from the Union Pacific Railroad Company (UPRR) to the Credit Mobilier of America construction company, to build an eastward transcontinental railroad. The catch: they were both owned by the same people. Within the $100,000,000 contract, The Credit Mobilier company requested more money than they needed. Then used the additional money to buy UPRR stocks at par value. Once the money came back around, this essentially stole from the United States because it was the government who was subsidizing the railroad. This scandal was far from a mistake because the Credit Mobilier purposely attempted to throw off an investigations by selling bonds and stocks for other US congressman and politicians. The scandal was eventually exposed by The New York Sun during the presidential election campaign up Ulyssess Grant who’s vice president had bought stocks from Credit Mobilier. Because there were no laws against such actions, Credit Mobilier wasn’t punished.
Based on previous historical conflicts, it has been proven many times over that farmers hate bankers. However, the Industrial Revolution proved that farmers also have a distaste for the railroad industry. Ensuing the Civil War, the necessity of transportation heightened, especially for farmers who relied on the Transcontinental Railroad to deliver their crops. Since this was the only method of transportation that served the direct needs of people, railroad companies could essentially charge any amount wanted, and outrageously exploit their customers. The railroad system became a monopoly that took advantage of its customers based on the lack of business competitors. Though this influx of railway prices troubled all users of the railroad system, farmers were especially affected because of their reliance on the train system. Not only was the price for delivery increased, but also the storage of farm goods. Once the fees were paid, farmers were left very poor and very angry with the railroad monopolies. Such discontent eventually fueled the Granger’s movement and the creation of the populist movement.
The Grangers was an organization comprised of farmers who were oppressed by the power of the railroad industry. Founded by Oliver Kelley, the Granger Movement worked to create a community of farmers that encouraged cooperation, and discussed cheaper and more efficient methods of agriculture. However, the intentions of the group eventually evolved. The Grangers viewed the railroads to be the main source of their problems. When the burden of the railroad tycoons became too obstruent to continue, the Grangers coordinated an uprising. These revolts led to the Supreme Court cases commonly referred to as the ‘Granger Cases’. In addition, the Farmers Declaration of Independence was issued, stating that the farmers would not be associated with the monopoly tycoons. Based on the depression of 1873, the Grangers gained many members, and effectively transitioned into a group who attempted to change the railroad industry to a more equitable version of itself, and create laws that benefited the farmers.
Stemming from the motives of the Grangers, the Populist Movement originated as the ‘Farmer’s Alliance’ movement, and was created from the farmers’ attempts of gaining equality. Populism was derived from the unfair advantage the rich had over the poor, and possessed a political doctrine that was in the interest of the population. In an attempt to fix such problems, the Farmer’s Alliance branded themselves as the ‘Populist Party’ and took a stance in politics. Formed by William Jennings Bryan, the “people party” (populist party) wanted to pose its ideas in the public arena. By establishing itself as a third party in the US government system, populism gained its much needed traction.
Populism had many goals, however two of the arguably more dominant goals were graduated income tax, and secretive voting. Graduated income tax outlined the ideology that the more one makes, the more one should be taxed. Originally everyone paid the same amount of taxes which was seen as unfair by populists because overall the rich would continue to have more money. Graduated income tax balanced everyone financially. This goal was eventually reached by the 16th Amendment which established federal income tax on behalf of Congress, and was ratified in 1913. The use of the secret ballot within the US was based off the success of such ballots in Australia. These ballots essentially discouraged peer pressure when it came to voting. Previous to the use of secret ballots, political parties not only influenced, but literally voted on behalf of its members by handing out pre-filled ballots. The populist party fixed this corruption by creating ballots which achieved political privacy. The system involved a voter’s choices to be anonymous, self completed, and filled out in an area of solitude. Kentucky and Louisiana were the first states to adapt this method of voting, and now the entire US uses this system of fair elections.
Both graduated income tax and secret ballots were adapted into the US government and are continued to be used today, however some ideas from the populist party didn’t experience the same long term success. The Postal Savings Bank, temporarily promulgated by President Taft, was an idea from the farmers. It was a combination of a post office and bank, which would promote savings for the poor, and provide a safe and convenient place to store money for those who lacked access to banks. Though the idea was very popular, it was seen as unneeded when compared to the power and premier functionality of the national bank, causing the concept to lose its following. Though this business venture didn’t succeed in America, other countries continue to use this method of banking in modern day society. Another example of a miscarried idea on behalf of populism, was railroad ownership. This concept attempted to pose competition to the railroad industry by promoting ownership of railroads by private owners and the government. In the long run, this hoped to lower the train prices of the railroad tycoons. However, the implementation of this design made it clear that small railroad companies could not exist while the railroads were being nationalized. Furthermore, America learned that multiple companies competing for railroads is impossible, along with developing more railroads concurrently.
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Honors Essay 8 - The Spanish American War & World War I
Consumerism is viewed by many as the main motivational factor for success in modern-day America. However, evidence of this societal culture can be traced back many years. Money is a coveted commodity, allowing it to greatly influence the actions, opinions, and interests of an individual. Evidence of this can be seen in the Presidential Election of 1896, when William Jennings Bryan wasn’t able to beat William McKinley. This was due to many different factors, one being the coalitions in which McKinley formed with big businessmen, professionals, successful farmers, and skilled factory workers. Another factor was McKinley’s campaign manager, Mark Hanna, who played a large role in McKinley’s success and gained much of his publicity. By targeting businesses, Hanna was able to create a $3.5 million campaign budget for McKinley (outspending Bryan five times over) laying the groundwork for many modern day campaign techniques. The last factor was McKinley and Hanna’s frequently used rhetorics and advertising propaganda which facilitated fear against the policies for which Bryan was said to be creating, and they displayed Bryan as a “reckless revolutionary” who would destroy America’s economy. Bryan’s ideas for new policies were said to increase taxes, and replace the gold standard with silver. Bryan was the favored candidate by the populist party which adds to the drama of the election, for it took place in the midst of the Populist Party boom. The campaign methods of the two opponents were what really set them apart. McKinley took the more traditional route, by using his manager effectively and allowing Hanna to do most of the work. On the other hand, Bryan’s approach was similar to what is seen in modern day politics. He chose to engage the public personally rather than via party leaders or a campaign manager, which allowed him to connect with his supporters. In the end, Bryan’s campaign methods may have lasted the longest, but Hanna was able to sell McKinley’s campaign like a needed product.
During McKinley’s presidential term, the Spanish American War broke out. The cause of this war is mainly seen as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, as the lust for raw materials and increased production rates caused America to attempt to expand its “sphere of influence” furthermore introducing itself into the Cuban War of Independance. During the Industrial Revolution, countries became engulfed in the possession of raw materials. Cuba, known for its valuable minerals, was seen as a potentially valuable asset to America’s industrialism. Furthermore, America promptly aided them in their revolution against the Spanish’s oppression. However, it’s widely known that this was mainly an attempt to gain control of Cuba’s resources, and create a colonial empire. This was classic case of modern imperialism, as McKinley didn’t want to become involved in the conflict until the possible results became clear should Cuba win. Though the entrance of the war was said to be for moral reasons against Cuba’s oppression, it’s clear that the main influence was from imperialism.
America actually entered the conflict because of rising tensions from the media, urging involvement. The Spanish American War is often referred to as the “first media war,” as it changed the face of propaganda. This infact rings true, as the press was the driving force for support from the American citizens. Scenarios were made up or altered to draw attention, and yellow journalism proved to be very popular. This journalism style produced heart wrenching reports about the inhumane treatment of Cuban women and children, released stories of untrue or altered events, and overall attempted to conjure the utmost pity for Cuba. Most of the released information has little evidence of truth, but captivated readers through interesting headlines. Two of the main propagandists of the time were William Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer who both saw this conflict as an opportunity to raise product sales, hence the production of dramatic headlines to popularize their prints. One example of this was following the explosion and sinking of the U.S.S. Maine. The culprit of this event was quickly assumed to be the Spanish, and the press confirmed that in the minds of American citizens. However, in reality the explosion was likely caused by an accidental spark in the ammunition stocks. The American press effectively exacerbated the state of emergency Cuba was in, and successfully pushed the U.S. into war. This “press driven motivation” can still be seen in society today, as the modern world is flooded by constantly updated news. With the new technological advancements of the times, word of any event can be spread worldwide, by anyone, in an instant. Because of the differing points of view within the world, propaganda in constantly stirred up. In consequence, the media’s bias and over exaggeration largely impacts most people.
The end of the Spanish American war arrived quickly, as America was only looking to expand its empire. The Treaty of Paris formally marked the end, and the U.S. gained its first overseas colony. In addition, the Spanish empire essentially dissolved - Puerto Rico, Guam, Cuba and the Philippines were ceded to America - and Spain was forced to take Cuba’s debt. America quickly became considered a new international power, and its resource space was quickly expanded. Puerto Rico became a U.S. territory where inhabitants were given American citizenship, however Guam was only considered a colony. The decision of what to do with the Philippines was debated for years. The U.S. wanted to annex it similarly to Puerto Rico, however many questioned if this would be wise considering its distance from America, the potential entanglement of alliances, and the creation of business competition. Ignoring such arguments, pro-imperialist President McKinley U.S. chose to annex the country; as the domination of oriental trade outweighed the costs. He also knew that he couldn’t simply hand the land back to Spain or allow other nations to expand. Much debate has risen from the annexation of these territories, as America pushed them into the colonization that America had once revolted against. The irony questions whether or not the U.S. is hypocritical for the colonization, and if abandoning the American ideology in the name of imperialism is justified.
Similarly to America, the European nations found the expansion of their “spheres of influence” to be very important. They were the determining factor of a nation’s wealth, access to resources, and economy. Because of the importance of these “spheres,” the protection of them was paramount. Furthermore the creation of alliances proved to be an effective way to protect economic systems overall. Not only would the land (source of raw materials) of a nation be protected, but also the markets, in the end protecting the entire economy. In addition to alliances, secret treaties were seen to form. These were important in order to guarantee the protection of a nation’s markets, and to be able to compete with those of the world. Like all secrets, they were made to avoid tensions or unwanted attention to certain things. In the case of the European nations, these treaties were formed to avoid problems that might affect their protection. These treaties and secret alliances are seen to be the reason for the gamut of the world’s nations to become involved in World War I.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the catalyst of WWI, however not the reason for it. The main reasons were the enormous amount of mutual defense agreements (alliances) made within Europe, the following existed before WWI: Serbia and Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany, Russia and France, Britain and Belgium and France, and Japan and Britain. The agreements between all stated that should one country be attacked, all allied countries were bound to assist them. Furthermore, the world calvacaded into war because each nation continued to pull in its allies. Because the Archduke was from Austria-Hungary, Austria-Hungary first declared war on Serbia. Serbia’s ally, Russia, rushed in uphold its agreement. Russia’s mobilization frightened Germany, and caused Germany to declare war on Russia. France was pulled in against both Austria-Hungary and Germany, and it was Germany’s attack against the French through the neutral Belgium which pulled Britain in. America was drawn in and aided the British, and both Italy and Japan entered and allied with Britain and the US. In short, the mistrust between two nations continued to drag out far too many others, all based on alliances made. Within WW1, two main alliances were formed: the triple entente (Great Britain, France, Russia) and the triple alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). These two groups had opposing economic alliances, and essentially fought over imperialism, conquest, spheres of influence, and militarization. Nowadays we would coin this as an example of a military industrial complex, which entangles resources, money, contracts, and the military.
President Wilson was was reluctant to enter the war, and was initially neutral in the conflict. He campaigned on the slogan “I kept us out of the war” which implied to the American public that he would continue to do so. Despite this slogan, the US entered WWI in 1917. The United States was said to have entered the war out of the protection of the country, as there were no further options or courses of action to take. The sinking of the Lusitania and multiple other US ships by Germans were constantly threatening the lives of innocent Americans. This violated the Sussex Pledge, and proved to America that the German’s were far from allies. The main event before America’s involvement was the Zimmerman telegram, which was an intercepted message between Germany and Mexico. Said message stated that Germany had plans of invading the U.S. through Mexico, which proved to be of great concern. There is speculation regarding whether or not Wilson entered the war purely for the protection of the nation, or if he was influenced by powerful people, economic protection, and/or was interesting in engaging in warfare all along. Based on his heavily neutral stance during his first term, it’s doubtful that he had predetermined America’s involvement in the war. Wilson was known to form many decision on his own, and often ignored the opinions of political and economic elites. Such actions lead many to believe that he wasn’t influenced by others. In the eyes of the American public, the engagement was purely for protection. The chance of Germany attacking of America’s border was too great a risk, and Wilson made a decision based on the new evidence presented to him.
WWI was unlike any previous war. This was mainly due to the increase in warfare technology. Such advancements included the development of poison gases (chemical warfare), tanks, submarines, and most importantly, trench warfare. Chemical warfare in WWI was mainly seen through the use of mustard gas (mainly used by allies), tear gas and chlorine gas (mainly used by axis forces). These gases were some of the most fear weapons of the war, as they could be used when no attack was happening. The use of these required soldiers to constantly carry gas masks or protective suits; should either of these be faulty, victims would live in agony for many days before succombing to the wounds. The first tank was invented by the British, and the use of them became very popular. They allowed to mobilization, protection, and the ability to roll over land. Submarines and other modern naval ships were developed during this time period, which allowed for greater variability in attacks, and overall military strength. Trench warfare is seen as the staple of WWI, as this land warfare technique was the main tactic of both opponents. This strategy involved the digging of large trenches which protected troops from small arms and artillery. These elaborate trench systems faced each other, and were protected from assault by barbed wire. The area called “no man’s land” was the exposed strip of land between the two opponents in which there was no protection whatsoever. The crossing of this area was immensely dangerous and produced many casualties. In the end, the Central Powers found defeat in WWI. The treaty of Versailles was the main peace treaty at the end of the war, which was signed five years after the initial catalyst - the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. This treaty only applied to Germany, and all other Axis nations were dealt with separately. The Treaty punished the Germans by requiring them to take full responsibility for both Germany and its allies, disarm their country to a stated size, make large territory concessions, and pay war reparations to the Entente nations. The treaty ended up being less than a bright idea, as nobody could agree what they wanted to happen to Germany. The French wanted to debilitate Germany, the English wanted to become trading partners which the French didn’t approve of, and the Americans wanted the creation of the League of Nations. The treaty is actually viewed as being too harsh towards Germany, and is seen as the reason why the popularity of the NSDAP (Nazi party) occurred. Germany was left a weak and powerless country, something which had never before been experienced. Overall the country was ashamed that their previously strong country was being forced to take the blame for the war, and the Nazi party fed off this discontent.
As previously mentioned, the U.S. was interested in the creation of the League of Nations which was discussed in President Wilson's Fourteen Points. The “Fourteen Points” was a statement given by Wilson that called for peace within Europe, the removal of secret agreements, and worldwide diplomacy. In short, the fourteen points outlined for the following: freedom of the seas, elimination of secret treaties, worldwide reduction of arms, free trade, impartial mediation of conflicts between colonies, and the creation of the League of Nations. As a result of the Paris Peace Conference, The League of Nations was founded as an intergovernmental organization that strived to create world peace. Mainly derived from the events of WWI, the League had intentions of decreasing armaments, improving living conditions, and handling conflicts between countries. Though it’s principles seem solid, the League of Nations proved to be a weak institution for many reasons. The first being the length of time needed to form decisions, as unanimous votes were required for action. Secondly, even though the United States was outlined to be one the five permanent members and created the idea, the nation didn’t join. Because the world’s dominant nation did not take part, both the League’s power and credibility was decreased. The reason for America’s involvement was based on congress's decision to abstain; congress believed that this would drag the nation into more conflicts. The final reason for the instability of the organization was based its lack of a military. Unlike the United Nations today, the League relied on the military of the world’s main powers (Russia, Britain, France and US) to enforce the regulations set forth. These militaries were often caution to do so, considering they would be the ones involved should a war break out. For all these reasons the League of Nations proved to be very unsuccessful.
Many years later, a team of investigators known as The Nye Committee examined the financial involvement of America during WWI. This was done by conducting 93 hearings and 200 witness interviews regarding the munitions industry, government contracts, war profits, and background information on pre-WWI America. The outcome of the investigation detailed that bankers played a large role in Wilson’s decision to enter the war. They continuously pressured him to make certain decisions based on what they would personally profit from (based on oversea loans.) In addition, the munitions industry was held responsible for holding an enormous influence over American foreign policy based on “price fixing” before the war. In all, the information suggested that the true reasons for going into war were solely for profits, finances, and business reasons (especially foreign involvement) rather than protection, effectively embodying the term “military industrial complex.” This information tarnished Wilson’s reputation as a president, and prompted the American public to feel angry about their involvement in the war.
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Consumerism is viewed by many as the main motivational factor for success in modern-day America. However, evidence of this societal culture can be traced back many years. Money is a coveted commodity, allowing it to greatly influence the actions, opinions, and interests of an individual. Evidence of this can be seen in the Presidential Election of 1896, when William Jennings Bryan wasn’t able to beat William McKinley. This was due to many different factors, one being the coalitions in which McKinley formed with big businessmen, professionals, successful farmers, and skilled factory workers. Another factor was McKinley’s campaign manager, Mark Hanna, who played a large role in McKinley’s success and gained much of his publicity. By targeting businesses, Hanna was able to create a $3.5 million campaign budget for McKinley (outspending Bryan five times over) laying the groundwork for many modern day campaign techniques. The last factor was McKinley and Hanna’s frequently used rhetorics and advertising propaganda which facilitated fear against the policies for which Bryan was said to be creating, and they displayed Bryan as a “reckless revolutionary” who would destroy America’s economy. Bryan’s ideas for new policies were said to increase taxes, and replace the gold standard with silver. Bryan was the favored candidate by the populist party which adds to the drama of the election, for it took place in the midst of the Populist Party boom. The campaign methods of the two opponents were what really set them apart. McKinley took the more traditional route, by using his manager effectively and allowing Hanna to do most of the work. On the other hand, Bryan’s approach was similar to what is seen in modern day politics. He chose to engage the public personally rather than via party leaders or a campaign manager, which allowed him to connect with his supporters. In the end, Bryan’s campaign methods may have lasted the longest, but Hanna was able to sell McKinley’s campaign like a needed product.
During McKinley’s presidential term, the Spanish American War broke out. The cause of this war is mainly seen as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, as the lust for raw materials and increased production rates caused America to attempt to expand its “sphere of influence” furthermore introducing itself into the Cuban War of Independance. During the Industrial Revolution, countries became engulfed in the possession of raw materials. Cuba, known for its valuable minerals, was seen as a potentially valuable asset to America’s industrialism. Furthermore, America promptly aided them in their revolution against the Spanish’s oppression. However, it’s widely known that this was mainly an attempt to gain control of Cuba’s resources, and create a colonial empire. This was classic case of modern imperialism, as McKinley didn’t want to become involved in the conflict until the possible results became clear should Cuba win. Though the entrance of the war was said to be for moral reasons against Cuba’s oppression, it’s clear that the main influence was from imperialism.
America actually entered the conflict because of rising tensions from the media, urging involvement. The Spanish American War is often referred to as the “first media war,” as it changed the face of propaganda. This infact rings true, as the press was the driving force for support from the American citizens. Scenarios were made up or altered to draw attention, and yellow journalism proved to be very popular. This journalism style produced heart wrenching reports about the inhumane treatment of Cuban women and children, released stories of untrue or altered events, and overall attempted to conjure the utmost pity for Cuba. Most of the released information has little evidence of truth, but captivated readers through interesting headlines. Two of the main propagandists of the time were William Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer who both saw this conflict as an opportunity to raise product sales, hence the production of dramatic headlines to popularize their prints. One example of this was following the explosion and sinking of the U.S.S. Maine. The culprit of this event was quickly assumed to be the Spanish, and the press confirmed that in the minds of American citizens. However, in reality the explosion was likely caused by an accidental spark in the ammunition stocks. The American press effectively exacerbated the state of emergency Cuba was in, and successfully pushed the U.S. into war. This “press driven motivation” can still be seen in society today, as the modern world is flooded by constantly updated news. With the new technological advancements of the times, word of any event can be spread worldwide, by anyone, in an instant. Because of the differing points of view within the world, propaganda in constantly stirred up. In consequence, the media’s bias and over exaggeration largely impacts most people.
The end of the Spanish American war arrived quickly, as America was only looking to expand its empire. The Treaty of Paris formally marked the end, and the U.S. gained its first overseas colony. In addition, the Spanish empire essentially dissolved - Puerto Rico, Guam, Cuba and the Philippines were ceded to America - and Spain was forced to take Cuba’s debt. America quickly became considered a new international power, and its resource space was quickly expanded. Puerto Rico became a U.S. territory where inhabitants were given American citizenship, however Guam was only considered a colony. The decision of what to do with the Philippines was debated for years. The U.S. wanted to annex it similarly to Puerto Rico, however many questioned if this would be wise considering its distance from America, the potential entanglement of alliances, and the creation of business competition. Ignoring such arguments, pro-imperialist President McKinley U.S. chose to annex the country; as the domination of oriental trade outweighed the costs. He also knew that he couldn’t simply hand the land back to Spain or allow other nations to expand. Much debate has risen from the annexation of these territories, as America pushed them into the colonization that America had once revolted against. The irony questions whether or not the U.S. is hypocritical for the colonization, and if abandoning the American ideology in the name of imperialism is justified.
Similarly to America, the European nations found the expansion of their “spheres of influence” to be very important. They were the determining factor of a nation’s wealth, access to resources, and economy. Because of the importance of these “spheres,” the protection of them was paramount. Furthermore the creation of alliances proved to be an effective way to protect economic systems overall. Not only would the land (source of raw materials) of a nation be protected, but also the markets, in the end protecting the entire economy. In addition to alliances, secret treaties were seen to form. These were important in order to guarantee the protection of a nation’s markets, and to be able to compete with those of the world. Like all secrets, they were made to avoid tensions or unwanted attention to certain things. In the case of the European nations, these treaties were formed to avoid problems that might affect their protection. These treaties and secret alliances are seen to be the reason for the gamut of the world’s nations to become involved in World War I.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the catalyst of WWI, however not the reason for it. The main reasons were the enormous amount of mutual defense agreements (alliances) made within Europe, the following existed before WWI: Serbia and Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany, Russia and France, Britain and Belgium and France, and Japan and Britain. The agreements between all stated that should one country be attacked, all allied countries were bound to assist them. Furthermore, the world calvacaded into war because each nation continued to pull in its allies. Because the Archduke was from Austria-Hungary, Austria-Hungary first declared war on Serbia. Serbia’s ally, Russia, rushed in uphold its agreement. Russia’s mobilization frightened Germany, and caused Germany to declare war on Russia. France was pulled in against both Austria-Hungary and Germany, and it was Germany’s attack against the French through the neutral Belgium which pulled Britain in. America was drawn in and aided the British, and both Italy and Japan entered and allied with Britain and the US. In short, the mistrust between two nations continued to drag out far too many others, all based on alliances made. Within WW1, two main alliances were formed: the triple entente (Great Britain, France, Russia) and the triple alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). These two groups had opposing economic alliances, and essentially fought over imperialism, conquest, spheres of influence, and militarization. Nowadays we would coin this as an example of a military industrial complex, which entangles resources, money, contracts, and the military.
President Wilson was was reluctant to enter the war, and was initially neutral in the conflict. He campaigned on the slogan “I kept us out of the war” which implied to the American public that he would continue to do so. Despite this slogan, the US entered WWI in 1917. The United States was said to have entered the war out of the protection of the country, as there were no further options or courses of action to take. The sinking of the Lusitania and multiple other US ships by Germans were constantly threatening the lives of innocent Americans. This violated the Sussex Pledge, and proved to America that the German’s were far from allies. The main event before America’s involvement was the Zimmerman telegram, which was an intercepted message between Germany and Mexico. Said message stated that Germany had plans of invading the U.S. through Mexico, which proved to be of great concern. There is speculation regarding whether or not Wilson entered the war purely for the protection of the nation, or if he was influenced by powerful people, economic protection, and/or was interesting in engaging in warfare all along. Based on his heavily neutral stance during his first term, it’s doubtful that he had predetermined America’s involvement in the war. Wilson was known to form many decision on his own, and often ignored the opinions of political and economic elites. Such actions lead many to believe that he wasn’t influenced by others. In the eyes of the American public, the engagement was purely for protection. The chance of Germany attacking of America’s border was too great a risk, and Wilson made a decision based on the new evidence presented to him.
WWI was unlike any previous war. This was mainly due to the increase in warfare technology. Such advancements included the development of poison gases (chemical warfare), tanks, submarines, and most importantly, trench warfare. Chemical warfare in WWI was mainly seen through the use of mustard gas (mainly used by allies), tear gas and chlorine gas (mainly used by axis forces). These gases were some of the most fear weapons of the war, as they could be used when no attack was happening. The use of these required soldiers to constantly carry gas masks or protective suits; should either of these be faulty, victims would live in agony for many days before succombing to the wounds. The first tank was invented by the British, and the use of them became very popular. They allowed to mobilization, protection, and the ability to roll over land. Submarines and other modern naval ships were developed during this time period, which allowed for greater variability in attacks, and overall military strength. Trench warfare is seen as the staple of WWI, as this land warfare technique was the main tactic of both opponents. This strategy involved the digging of large trenches which protected troops from small arms and artillery. These elaborate trench systems faced each other, and were protected from assault by barbed wire. The area called “no man’s land” was the exposed strip of land between the two opponents in which there was no protection whatsoever. The crossing of this area was immensely dangerous and produced many casualties. In the end, the Central Powers found defeat in WWI. The treaty of Versailles was the main peace treaty at the end of the war, which was signed five years after the initial catalyst - the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. This treaty only applied to Germany, and all other Axis nations were dealt with separately. The Treaty punished the Germans by requiring them to take full responsibility for both Germany and its allies, disarm their country to a stated size, make large territory concessions, and pay war reparations to the Entente nations. The treaty ended up being less than a bright idea, as nobody could agree what they wanted to happen to Germany. The French wanted to debilitate Germany, the English wanted to become trading partners which the French didn’t approve of, and the Americans wanted the creation of the League of Nations. The treaty is actually viewed as being too harsh towards Germany, and is seen as the reason why the popularity of the NSDAP (Nazi party) occurred. Germany was left a weak and powerless country, something which had never before been experienced. Overall the country was ashamed that their previously strong country was being forced to take the blame for the war, and the Nazi party fed off this discontent.
As previously mentioned, the U.S. was interested in the creation of the League of Nations which was discussed in President Wilson's Fourteen Points. The “Fourteen Points” was a statement given by Wilson that called for peace within Europe, the removal of secret agreements, and worldwide diplomacy. In short, the fourteen points outlined for the following: freedom of the seas, elimination of secret treaties, worldwide reduction of arms, free trade, impartial mediation of conflicts between colonies, and the creation of the League of Nations. As a result of the Paris Peace Conference, The League of Nations was founded as an intergovernmental organization that strived to create world peace. Mainly derived from the events of WWI, the League had intentions of decreasing armaments, improving living conditions, and handling conflicts between countries. Though it’s principles seem solid, the League of Nations proved to be a weak institution for many reasons. The first being the length of time needed to form decisions, as unanimous votes were required for action. Secondly, even though the United States was outlined to be one the five permanent members and created the idea, the nation didn’t join. Because the world’s dominant nation did not take part, both the League’s power and credibility was decreased. The reason for America’s involvement was based on congress's decision to abstain; congress believed that this would drag the nation into more conflicts. The final reason for the instability of the organization was based its lack of a military. Unlike the United Nations today, the League relied on the military of the world’s main powers (Russia, Britain, France and US) to enforce the regulations set forth. These militaries were often caution to do so, considering they would be the ones involved should a war break out. For all these reasons the League of Nations proved to be very unsuccessful.
Many years later, a team of investigators known as The Nye Committee examined the financial involvement of America during WWI. This was done by conducting 93 hearings and 200 witness interviews regarding the munitions industry, government contracts, war profits, and background information on pre-WWI America. The outcome of the investigation detailed that bankers played a large role in Wilson’s decision to enter the war. They continuously pressured him to make certain decisions based on what they would personally profit from (based on oversea loans.) In addition, the munitions industry was held responsible for holding an enormous influence over American foreign policy based on “price fixing” before the war. In all, the information suggested that the true reasons for going into war were solely for profits, finances, and business reasons (especially foreign involvement) rather than protection, effectively embodying the term “military industrial complex.” This information tarnished Wilson’s reputation as a president, and prompted the American public to feel angry about their involvement in the war.
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Honors Essay 9 - The Roaring 20's & The Great Crash
America after World War I was significantly different that before. Such a large-scale war took its toll on both America’s economy and society. Many of the companies that were involved in the weapons industry experienced declined sales, as there was no longer a need for mass produced machinery. America’s reserves of raw materials were depleted based on heavy use for war materials, leading to a shortage of iron, copper, coal, oil and more. Although some businesses took this change negatively, some industries such as the entertainment and automobile industries were found to be extremely prosperous. America’s emphasis on the creation of a free market and free trade returned the government to a laissez-faire state. Many changes in society were influenced by the change in job status of women and immigrants. During the WWI many women and immigrants assumed the jobs of the men who had gone to war. Upon the return of the soldiers, many women and immigrants were laid off, leading to a drastic change in the culture of society. This caused a rise in support for the women’s suffrage movement, and efforts of gaining more rights for both females and minorities. Because WWI was seen to disrupt many of the social norms that embodied America, the decade after brought a wave of progressive thinking. The population rose immensely because of an increase in minorities in America during the war who were seen to flock together and form distinct social lines between cultures. This caused many cities to grow, and ethnicity based regions of cities to form. Urbanization was also seem to increase during this time, as the decrease in agricultural jobs led many farmers to move towards the city looking for other work.
Many changes in American society were influenced by the telephone, radio, moves, newspapers, magazines, jazz music, literature, and the Harlem Renaissance. Not only was the telephone the easiest and fastest method of communication at the time, but it was also the most accessible; almost everyone was able to own one. Businesses were able to improve functionality with the help of the telephone, and they began to be used for more that just personal use. Although the creation of the telephone is mainly viewed as a positive piece of revolutionary technology, it eliminated the need for servants to deliver messages or telegrams. Thus many jobs were lost upon its adaptation in the homes of Americans. Although the radio had already been invented, its widespread use became apparent in the 1920’s. Rather than picking up a newspaper to access the news, it could be easily listened to through the radio. This allowed for multitasking, increased business sales, and the use of advertisements. The radio was an appealing product because it was affordable for almost everyone and was a means of faster delivery of information. Since leisure and entertainment were becoming very popular, the movie and television industry took off. In 1927 sound was introduced to films which dramatically changed the cinematic effect to movies. Rather than only silent images on the screen, movies contained songs and dialogue. This boosted popularity immensely. Not only was the entertainment industry aided from this change, but businesses found televisions to be the perfect platform for advertisements. Magazines and newspapers were two of the main forms of news and communication at the time. Prior to the 20’s, newspapers were only able to be afforded by the rich. However magazines were created to be cheaper and more available to the working class. Magazines were known, and continue to be known, for their eye-catching layouts, as the use of pictures are essential to their success. Rather than just words, magazines focused on the importance of photos, and acted as a knowledge booster for the working class. In addition, magazines and movies began to build the celebrity culture America still experiences today, and introduced the tabloids. Hollywood and fame was beginning to take a dominant role on American culture. The 1920’s was known to be one of the greatest periods of American literature. Well known books such as The Great Gatsby, The Sun Also Rises, and This Side of Paradise were written during the time, and encapsulated the essence of the decade. Music preference in the 1920’s switched from classical and folk music to jazz. This upbeat style of music was interestingly created by the black community in Harlem, New York and produced many well-known musicians such as Duke Ellington and Jelly Roll Morton. Although many associate jazz music with instruments like the saxophone, the style of music was originally played on the piano. Along with jazz, the Harlem Renaissance was created by the black community of Harlem, New York; hence its name. This artistic movement demonstrated their rich cultural history, and gained a lot of popularity for the literature, musics and art of the African Americans. Notable authors such as Alain Locke and Claude Mckay became the seminal figures of the movement, and led many artistic individuals to be release from the influences of America’s white society.
One of the biggest impacts on the American economy and the age of technology was the invention of the automobile. The most obvious benefit from the creation of the car was the new accessibility of transportation, and the decrease in time it too to get places. In the beginning the ownership of automobiles was reserved to only the rich, however Ford was able to create more economical options that were affordable to people of all classes. The Ford Model-T came to be the most popular car of the time. The invention of the car was seen to make an impact on the urbanization of America, as people were suddenly able to move out of the cities and commute to work. This led families to buy more land in the suburbs, the rich to escape to the countrysides, and the middle class to take vacations rather than stay at home. Those who lived in rural areas were suddenly able to communicate with neighbors and those who lived in the area, because the process of getting to a friend’s house only took a matter of minutes which aided the communities of America. America as a whole, and especially the youth, were seen to be “liberated” by the adaptation of cars into their households because they were no longer tied down to places within walking distances. The automobile industry boosted the economy because of the sheer number of cars that were being bought, but also because Ford was known to pay workers well. They supported the idea of boosting the economy, and providing the working class with a suitable life. Though there were many upsides to the introduction of the car, some Americans found them to be a nuisance. Unlike modern cars, cars at the time produced copious amounts of pollution, and their exhausts dirtied cities. Roads weren’t completely developed at the time, which caused immense amounts of traffic and congestion within cities. It could take quite a while to arrive places. Although communities were being brought together outside of the cities, the pushing together of them was sometimes seen to be a problem. It led to an increase in tensions between immigrants and native Americans who held prejudices against each other and would have otherwise lived in close contact. Lastly, the unison of families was seen to diminish because all members could be in different places rather than together for meals or activities.
Changes in style, fashion, entertainment, music, sports and consumerism during the 1920’s were some of the most notable features of the time period. The result of the hollywood boom was the new ideals of luxury and extravagance. America’s cosmology shifted, and the public suddenly had a yearn for a different lifestyle. Women ditched social norms, and began to show more skin and change their hairstyles to the younger and hipper “bob cut.” The symbolic ‘flapper girls’ originated at this time, which acted as a controversial topic based on their short skirts and and wild makeup. Heavy discrimination riddled the times, as the standards of being ‘lady like’ were being pushed past the comfort levels of many. Men were seen to overdress as a sign of wealth, and consumerism began to be painfully apparent in American culture. Drinks, cigarettes, watches and other material goods were bought for reasons none other than pleasure which seemed to overshadow any form of necessity. The entertainment industry was also seen to alter dramatically. As stated above, the sudden interest in jazz music was the biggest change in music, and sparked the creation of a new form of dance which included partners and being within close proximities of each other. This attracted the younger generation regardless of their races, which proved to be very worrisome for parents. Nothing was more terrifying than white children dancing provocatively to the music of the blacks. The sports industry was seen to take off at this point in time, and became a source of entertainment. Rather than just playing sports for casual fun, many found an interest in watching professionals play competitively. It quickly developed into a successful industry that’s now a pivotal piece of American culture. Although these changes contributed to the spirit of the times, many had a distaste for the course American culture was taking.
America’s traditionalists, to say the least, completely disapproved of the changes in style, entertainment, and daily life introduced in the 1920’s. In their opinion, the lack of modesty was tarnishing the feats of American society such as religion and family values. The older generation believed that the younger generation was living a carefree, frivolous, un-thankful life that threw out all traditional morals. It is true that the standards for behavior had dramatically changed from their state before WWI. Everything in the 20’s was fun, and this had traditionalists worried. In addition, at this time the second wave of the women’s suffrage movement was occurring. The movement was calling for the ratification of the 19th amendment, which was carried through. One of the main reasons why women felt the need for equal treatment was because of their heavy involvement in the war effort. They were the ones who took the roles of the men when they had to go to war, and when the men returned, the women felt as though their freedoms and liberties were being stripped of them. Although the movement was run primarily by women, there were some females who believed that the voting booth was not the place of a women. They thought that women should only focus on the family values they were brought up with, and female interaction in government business would be extremely inappropriate. The men who were for the 19th amendment were great enough in numbers to gain voting rights for their mothers, daughters, sisters and wives. Of course there were some who disagreed similarly to the small group of women, however majority realized the benefits of women’s voices in the government. Support for the movement was clearly displayed by the bearing of yellow roses, while discouragement was shown through red roses. The desperation for the ratification of the 19th amendment was publically displayed by hunger strikes, and other radical demonstrations to gain support for the cause.
The traditionalists in America didn’t embrace these changes, and instead pushed the value of religion to American. Overall the country became extremely racist, xenophobic, and against immigration. Because of the xenophobia, traditionalists attempted to stop foreigners from entering the country, and were aided by the re-emergence of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). However rather than only focusing on the blacks, the party now targeted any foreigners. Deeming themselves the “Defenders of America’s Morality,” they now opposed catholics, jews and anyone else who was a potential threat to America’s traditions. As easily assumed, the KKK did not support women’s rights, or any movements of the sort. Similar to the KKK, the Know-Nothing Party emerged. This group of American nativists valued the culture of the country, and attempted to pressure the US government to eliminate immigration. The difference between the Know-Nothings and the KKK was the factor of generational immigration, and violence. Those who were accustomed to and in support of American culture were accepted by the Know-Nothings no matter their ethnicity. In addition, the KKK prefered tacking problems through means of violence, whereas the Know-Nothings attempted to bring change through the use of politics.
In 1922 the US Government prohibited the sale, creation or consumption of alcoholic beverages within the country through the 18th amendment. This change was made in attempts of changing the status quo, and making a change for the greater good. At the time women were still not allowed to vote, however they held a large influence over this act. Based on its correlation with anger and domestic violence, women pushed to outlaw alcohol for the safety of themselves and their families. Sober husbands would be less likely to act out on their rage, and women were too fed up to deal with their violence any longer. This act was called the “Noble Experiment” because even though it’s intention was to stop violence, it ended up doing the opposite. People couldn’t live without drinking, which led to the production of moonshine, mobs, organized crimes, speakeasies and black markets. Some became rich from selling bootleg alcohol made in household bathtubs, however many died from accidental poisonings based on the unsafe cooking environments. Aside from societal changes, the prohibition took a toll on the economy. All maker and sellers of alcoholic drinkers were put out of business, and bars and saloons had no other choice but to shut down. Because of it’s negative effects on the country, the 21st amendment repealed the prohibition in 1933.
In the 1920’s, money was seen to be the most important commodity in the world. This made life a breeze for the rich, however if members of the working class wanted to obtain any substantial amounts of wealth, they had to purchase items through credit or take out loans. The economic boom led many to take out loans from the banks to invest in the stock market, and to simply spend on consumeristic goods. Many businesses began to offer credit, which allowed customers to buy anything using the banks money, and repay the bank once they earned it back. This allowed the working class to buy many of the things they would have otherwise been able to, and to feel leveled with the rich. Since everyone was able to buy majority of what they wanted, new products began to be the forefront of attention. What one person had caused others to want the same, causing a boom in the technology and appliance industries. Businesses focused on creating more and more products through mass production based on the demand for copious amounts of essentially everything. Wealth was becoming the most valuable aspect of society, and those businesses who made large profits were venerated whether their methods were honest or not. This increase in consumerism led directly to a decrease in America’s traditional values. Based on America’s interest in laissez faire, the government believed in a free market. This hands-off approach disconnected the government and the economy, creating a decrease in taxes & regulations. In addition, the government allowed businesses to proceed making any amounts of money they wanted without interference. To many this was seen as a sign of encouragement from the government, which caused consumerism and the pursuit of wealth to fully manifested in the minds of Americans.
Based on the lack of regulation seen in America’s economy during the 20’s, many speculated that the government purposely turned a blind eye to many of the ‘sketchy’ events that were unfolding. This is easily explained by the fact that politicians would be benefitted immensely through bribes if they allowed companies to continue to function unregulated. Because of this, many scandals broke out within large companies, especially during the presidencies of Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. During Harding’s term, the wrongdoings of his cabinet members continued to harm the credibility of his administration. He wasn’t concerned with regulating the stock market, as he wanted the economy to return to normal. The event known as the Teapot Dome scandal took place during Harding’s presidency. This scandal involved the hidden leasing of federally owned oil reserves by Albert Fall, the secretary of the interior, to Harry Sinclair of Mammoth Oil Company. President Harding had transferred the control of these navy oil reserved to the care of Fall in 1921. However, instead of properly fulfilling his duties, Fall secretly granted rights of the oil reserves to Sinclair in exchange for large sums of money and loans. Although it wasn’t directly Harding’s fault, it still happened under his watch and went against his ideals. Calvin Coolidge assumed the role of president following Harding, and was left to ‘clean up’ the messes left. He advocated for limited government spending to prevent any further scandals, cut taxes, and implemented high tariffs on foreign imports to project the American industry. While Coolidge was attempting to clear the Teapot Dome scandal, the Midland Company scandal took place. Coolidge’s secretary of treasury, Hoover had warned Coolidge that Midland had been hiring proxies to buy its own stocks to make it look more popular, however Coolidge chose to ignore it. Exactly like the Teapot Dome, the government turned a blind eye in order to continue it’s belief in a free market.
The economic growth of the 1920’s was in part due to the success of the stock market. Banks were loaning out more money to people, investors and businesses than ever before. However with the growth of companies with unforeseeable futures, especially technology based companies, people weren’t completely sure what the true value of their stocks were. Therefore, many smart investors came up with investment strategies to help determine whether they were making a good choice or not. Two well known strategies of the time were leverage and margin. Margin referred to investing on the assumption that the sock would increase in value rapidly, making it easy for one to pay back the money loaned from the bank. Leverage was the action of loaning out more money than you have, expecting to earn more profits and pay back the bank the original sum while having a larger profit gain. This option was only made possible after 1920, as banks had never before loaned out more money than one actually owned. However the roaring twenties induced a leniency within the banking system, making it a more relaxed process. Many expected there strategies to be infallible, however reality proved otherwise. The ‘speculative bubble’ was a term coined as a result of amateur stock buyers. This term essentially stated their belief that since many stock companies were succeeding, they would only continue to do so. Because of the sheer number of investments at the time, prices continued to go up, people continued to invest, and a bubble formed. This optimistic view of the system made many believe that certain industries were great, however the price of a stock doesn’t always reflect the true value of the share. In addition, at the time there wasn’t a difference between commercial and investment banks. Furthermore banks began to loan out on risky promises, ignoring the rules regarding who should and should be eligible for loans. Thus loans were given to weak customers, making the entire system considerably unstable.
The problem with the economic system was only aided by the unequal distribution of wealth. An estimated 60% of Americans were living under poverty; furthermore the middle class was not large enough to continue successful commerce. The income disparity was too high to have a successful market for products. The gap between the rich and the poor was incredible, along with the wealth gap between agriculture and industry, and Europe and the U.S. Workers were seen to earn too low of paychecks to afford the items being made, which led the supply of products to outweigh the demand, and the prices of said products to raise in order to buffer the cost spent to produce the wasted product. Because of this raise in prices, workers were unable to afford majority of products, and there wasn’t a large enough middle class to buy everything being produced. The rich were seen to get richer, and the poorer were seen to get poorer. This disproportion made the economy even more unstable, and paved the way for the crash of the stock market.
The stock market crash was in part based on the decreased demand and oversupply, the fall of the housing market, and overproduction in the farming industry. The improvement of technology led farmers to experience the most effective farming methods ever, however this quickly led to overproduction and the absence of commerce based on the lack of a middle class. Because of this uneven wealth distribution, farmers lost all price competition and couldn’t charge as much as they once could. Post war Europe wasn’t an option as a buyer for excess product, making sales even more difficult. Many farmers who had to abandon their businesses out of bankruptcy took refuge in factory jobs, and others chose to battle through the hard times. Those who chose to stay in business were soon pushed back down by the harsh weather of the 1920’s known as the dust bowl, which made it nearly impossible to grow anything. Many businesses that were feeling the pain of low demand continued to take out loans to stay afloat, and others took out loans because they believe they needed to produce more even though they were losing an audience. America was pushed to the point where citizens couldn’t afford or buy products as fast as they were being made, causing many to resort to the bare necessities rather than the extravagance they once craved. The once booming housing market crashed as well, leaving all construction and realty companies to diminish. Based on the fact that you only need one house, people stopped buying once they had bought one. This sudden change sparked paranoia in the minds of many, and freaked out the population. The fact that investments could be lost so easily caused the public to lose faith in the stock system, pull out their money, and stop investing.
The big crash of 1929 wiped out immense amounts of America’s money, and left almost everything and everyone in a poor state. A ripple effect hit the economy and society, first rendering the banks useless. They could no longer offer loans, as they had no money to offer. This hurt businesses because they had no source of money to help them get through the tough times. Many companies were forced to go bankrupt, which left workers without jobs. Since many people were laid of, nobody could afford to buy anything, leading to a lack of consumerism. The desperation of the times led many to do whatever it took to get by, leading to increased crime rates, and decreased civic engagement such as sports and entertainment. There was however one exception. Through the terrible times, movies were still seen to prevail. They offered as an escape from reality, and existed as one of the only profitable industries of the time. Those who were wise enough to pull out their investments in 1928 and had predicted the crash were able to prosper through the great depression, and realized that the best time to reinvest was right after the crash.
At the time, methods for fixing the economy was heavily debated by both the Democrats and the Republicans. As expected, the Republicans felt that the government shouldn’t interfere, and the economy should be left to fix itself. The laissez-faire, hands-off method was still believed to be the best option. On the other hand, the Democrats felt as though it was the duty of the government to fix the situation. They proposed to create recovery programs for the economy, and to use government money to boost failing businesses. In any case, the great crash acted as a much needed ‘reboot’ for the American economy. It had reached an uncontrollable state which was rising far too quickly. Although it sent the country into a difficult period, in the long run, 1929 changed the US economy for the better.
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America after World War I was significantly different that before. Such a large-scale war took its toll on both America’s economy and society. Many of the companies that were involved in the weapons industry experienced declined sales, as there was no longer a need for mass produced machinery. America’s reserves of raw materials were depleted based on heavy use for war materials, leading to a shortage of iron, copper, coal, oil and more. Although some businesses took this change negatively, some industries such as the entertainment and automobile industries were found to be extremely prosperous. America’s emphasis on the creation of a free market and free trade returned the government to a laissez-faire state. Many changes in society were influenced by the change in job status of women and immigrants. During the WWI many women and immigrants assumed the jobs of the men who had gone to war. Upon the return of the soldiers, many women and immigrants were laid off, leading to a drastic change in the culture of society. This caused a rise in support for the women’s suffrage movement, and efforts of gaining more rights for both females and minorities. Because WWI was seen to disrupt many of the social norms that embodied America, the decade after brought a wave of progressive thinking. The population rose immensely because of an increase in minorities in America during the war who were seen to flock together and form distinct social lines between cultures. This caused many cities to grow, and ethnicity based regions of cities to form. Urbanization was also seem to increase during this time, as the decrease in agricultural jobs led many farmers to move towards the city looking for other work.
Many changes in American society were influenced by the telephone, radio, moves, newspapers, magazines, jazz music, literature, and the Harlem Renaissance. Not only was the telephone the easiest and fastest method of communication at the time, but it was also the most accessible; almost everyone was able to own one. Businesses were able to improve functionality with the help of the telephone, and they began to be used for more that just personal use. Although the creation of the telephone is mainly viewed as a positive piece of revolutionary technology, it eliminated the need for servants to deliver messages or telegrams. Thus many jobs were lost upon its adaptation in the homes of Americans. Although the radio had already been invented, its widespread use became apparent in the 1920’s. Rather than picking up a newspaper to access the news, it could be easily listened to through the radio. This allowed for multitasking, increased business sales, and the use of advertisements. The radio was an appealing product because it was affordable for almost everyone and was a means of faster delivery of information. Since leisure and entertainment were becoming very popular, the movie and television industry took off. In 1927 sound was introduced to films which dramatically changed the cinematic effect to movies. Rather than only silent images on the screen, movies contained songs and dialogue. This boosted popularity immensely. Not only was the entertainment industry aided from this change, but businesses found televisions to be the perfect platform for advertisements. Magazines and newspapers were two of the main forms of news and communication at the time. Prior to the 20’s, newspapers were only able to be afforded by the rich. However magazines were created to be cheaper and more available to the working class. Magazines were known, and continue to be known, for their eye-catching layouts, as the use of pictures are essential to their success. Rather than just words, magazines focused on the importance of photos, and acted as a knowledge booster for the working class. In addition, magazines and movies began to build the celebrity culture America still experiences today, and introduced the tabloids. Hollywood and fame was beginning to take a dominant role on American culture. The 1920’s was known to be one of the greatest periods of American literature. Well known books such as The Great Gatsby, The Sun Also Rises, and This Side of Paradise were written during the time, and encapsulated the essence of the decade. Music preference in the 1920’s switched from classical and folk music to jazz. This upbeat style of music was interestingly created by the black community in Harlem, New York and produced many well-known musicians such as Duke Ellington and Jelly Roll Morton. Although many associate jazz music with instruments like the saxophone, the style of music was originally played on the piano. Along with jazz, the Harlem Renaissance was created by the black community of Harlem, New York; hence its name. This artistic movement demonstrated their rich cultural history, and gained a lot of popularity for the literature, musics and art of the African Americans. Notable authors such as Alain Locke and Claude Mckay became the seminal figures of the movement, and led many artistic individuals to be release from the influences of America’s white society.
One of the biggest impacts on the American economy and the age of technology was the invention of the automobile. The most obvious benefit from the creation of the car was the new accessibility of transportation, and the decrease in time it too to get places. In the beginning the ownership of automobiles was reserved to only the rich, however Ford was able to create more economical options that were affordable to people of all classes. The Ford Model-T came to be the most popular car of the time. The invention of the car was seen to make an impact on the urbanization of America, as people were suddenly able to move out of the cities and commute to work. This led families to buy more land in the suburbs, the rich to escape to the countrysides, and the middle class to take vacations rather than stay at home. Those who lived in rural areas were suddenly able to communicate with neighbors and those who lived in the area, because the process of getting to a friend’s house only took a matter of minutes which aided the communities of America. America as a whole, and especially the youth, were seen to be “liberated” by the adaptation of cars into their households because they were no longer tied down to places within walking distances. The automobile industry boosted the economy because of the sheer number of cars that were being bought, but also because Ford was known to pay workers well. They supported the idea of boosting the economy, and providing the working class with a suitable life. Though there were many upsides to the introduction of the car, some Americans found them to be a nuisance. Unlike modern cars, cars at the time produced copious amounts of pollution, and their exhausts dirtied cities. Roads weren’t completely developed at the time, which caused immense amounts of traffic and congestion within cities. It could take quite a while to arrive places. Although communities were being brought together outside of the cities, the pushing together of them was sometimes seen to be a problem. It led to an increase in tensions between immigrants and native Americans who held prejudices against each other and would have otherwise lived in close contact. Lastly, the unison of families was seen to diminish because all members could be in different places rather than together for meals or activities.
Changes in style, fashion, entertainment, music, sports and consumerism during the 1920’s were some of the most notable features of the time period. The result of the hollywood boom was the new ideals of luxury and extravagance. America’s cosmology shifted, and the public suddenly had a yearn for a different lifestyle. Women ditched social norms, and began to show more skin and change their hairstyles to the younger and hipper “bob cut.” The symbolic ‘flapper girls’ originated at this time, which acted as a controversial topic based on their short skirts and and wild makeup. Heavy discrimination riddled the times, as the standards of being ‘lady like’ were being pushed past the comfort levels of many. Men were seen to overdress as a sign of wealth, and consumerism began to be painfully apparent in American culture. Drinks, cigarettes, watches and other material goods were bought for reasons none other than pleasure which seemed to overshadow any form of necessity. The entertainment industry was also seen to alter dramatically. As stated above, the sudden interest in jazz music was the biggest change in music, and sparked the creation of a new form of dance which included partners and being within close proximities of each other. This attracted the younger generation regardless of their races, which proved to be very worrisome for parents. Nothing was more terrifying than white children dancing provocatively to the music of the blacks. The sports industry was seen to take off at this point in time, and became a source of entertainment. Rather than just playing sports for casual fun, many found an interest in watching professionals play competitively. It quickly developed into a successful industry that’s now a pivotal piece of American culture. Although these changes contributed to the spirit of the times, many had a distaste for the course American culture was taking.
America’s traditionalists, to say the least, completely disapproved of the changes in style, entertainment, and daily life introduced in the 1920’s. In their opinion, the lack of modesty was tarnishing the feats of American society such as religion and family values. The older generation believed that the younger generation was living a carefree, frivolous, un-thankful life that threw out all traditional morals. It is true that the standards for behavior had dramatically changed from their state before WWI. Everything in the 20’s was fun, and this had traditionalists worried. In addition, at this time the second wave of the women’s suffrage movement was occurring. The movement was calling for the ratification of the 19th amendment, which was carried through. One of the main reasons why women felt the need for equal treatment was because of their heavy involvement in the war effort. They were the ones who took the roles of the men when they had to go to war, and when the men returned, the women felt as though their freedoms and liberties were being stripped of them. Although the movement was run primarily by women, there were some females who believed that the voting booth was not the place of a women. They thought that women should only focus on the family values they were brought up with, and female interaction in government business would be extremely inappropriate. The men who were for the 19th amendment were great enough in numbers to gain voting rights for their mothers, daughters, sisters and wives. Of course there were some who disagreed similarly to the small group of women, however majority realized the benefits of women’s voices in the government. Support for the movement was clearly displayed by the bearing of yellow roses, while discouragement was shown through red roses. The desperation for the ratification of the 19th amendment was publically displayed by hunger strikes, and other radical demonstrations to gain support for the cause.
The traditionalists in America didn’t embrace these changes, and instead pushed the value of religion to American. Overall the country became extremely racist, xenophobic, and against immigration. Because of the xenophobia, traditionalists attempted to stop foreigners from entering the country, and were aided by the re-emergence of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). However rather than only focusing on the blacks, the party now targeted any foreigners. Deeming themselves the “Defenders of America’s Morality,” they now opposed catholics, jews and anyone else who was a potential threat to America’s traditions. As easily assumed, the KKK did not support women’s rights, or any movements of the sort. Similar to the KKK, the Know-Nothing Party emerged. This group of American nativists valued the culture of the country, and attempted to pressure the US government to eliminate immigration. The difference between the Know-Nothings and the KKK was the factor of generational immigration, and violence. Those who were accustomed to and in support of American culture were accepted by the Know-Nothings no matter their ethnicity. In addition, the KKK prefered tacking problems through means of violence, whereas the Know-Nothings attempted to bring change through the use of politics.
In 1922 the US Government prohibited the sale, creation or consumption of alcoholic beverages within the country through the 18th amendment. This change was made in attempts of changing the status quo, and making a change for the greater good. At the time women were still not allowed to vote, however they held a large influence over this act. Based on its correlation with anger and domestic violence, women pushed to outlaw alcohol for the safety of themselves and their families. Sober husbands would be less likely to act out on their rage, and women were too fed up to deal with their violence any longer. This act was called the “Noble Experiment” because even though it’s intention was to stop violence, it ended up doing the opposite. People couldn’t live without drinking, which led to the production of moonshine, mobs, organized crimes, speakeasies and black markets. Some became rich from selling bootleg alcohol made in household bathtubs, however many died from accidental poisonings based on the unsafe cooking environments. Aside from societal changes, the prohibition took a toll on the economy. All maker and sellers of alcoholic drinkers were put out of business, and bars and saloons had no other choice but to shut down. Because of it’s negative effects on the country, the 21st amendment repealed the prohibition in 1933.
In the 1920’s, money was seen to be the most important commodity in the world. This made life a breeze for the rich, however if members of the working class wanted to obtain any substantial amounts of wealth, they had to purchase items through credit or take out loans. The economic boom led many to take out loans from the banks to invest in the stock market, and to simply spend on consumeristic goods. Many businesses began to offer credit, which allowed customers to buy anything using the banks money, and repay the bank once they earned it back. This allowed the working class to buy many of the things they would have otherwise been able to, and to feel leveled with the rich. Since everyone was able to buy majority of what they wanted, new products began to be the forefront of attention. What one person had caused others to want the same, causing a boom in the technology and appliance industries. Businesses focused on creating more and more products through mass production based on the demand for copious amounts of essentially everything. Wealth was becoming the most valuable aspect of society, and those businesses who made large profits were venerated whether their methods were honest or not. This increase in consumerism led directly to a decrease in America’s traditional values. Based on America’s interest in laissez faire, the government believed in a free market. This hands-off approach disconnected the government and the economy, creating a decrease in taxes & regulations. In addition, the government allowed businesses to proceed making any amounts of money they wanted without interference. To many this was seen as a sign of encouragement from the government, which caused consumerism and the pursuit of wealth to fully manifested in the minds of Americans.
Based on the lack of regulation seen in America’s economy during the 20’s, many speculated that the government purposely turned a blind eye to many of the ‘sketchy’ events that were unfolding. This is easily explained by the fact that politicians would be benefitted immensely through bribes if they allowed companies to continue to function unregulated. Because of this, many scandals broke out within large companies, especially during the presidencies of Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. During Harding’s term, the wrongdoings of his cabinet members continued to harm the credibility of his administration. He wasn’t concerned with regulating the stock market, as he wanted the economy to return to normal. The event known as the Teapot Dome scandal took place during Harding’s presidency. This scandal involved the hidden leasing of federally owned oil reserves by Albert Fall, the secretary of the interior, to Harry Sinclair of Mammoth Oil Company. President Harding had transferred the control of these navy oil reserved to the care of Fall in 1921. However, instead of properly fulfilling his duties, Fall secretly granted rights of the oil reserves to Sinclair in exchange for large sums of money and loans. Although it wasn’t directly Harding’s fault, it still happened under his watch and went against his ideals. Calvin Coolidge assumed the role of president following Harding, and was left to ‘clean up’ the messes left. He advocated for limited government spending to prevent any further scandals, cut taxes, and implemented high tariffs on foreign imports to project the American industry. While Coolidge was attempting to clear the Teapot Dome scandal, the Midland Company scandal took place. Coolidge’s secretary of treasury, Hoover had warned Coolidge that Midland had been hiring proxies to buy its own stocks to make it look more popular, however Coolidge chose to ignore it. Exactly like the Teapot Dome, the government turned a blind eye in order to continue it’s belief in a free market.
The economic growth of the 1920’s was in part due to the success of the stock market. Banks were loaning out more money to people, investors and businesses than ever before. However with the growth of companies with unforeseeable futures, especially technology based companies, people weren’t completely sure what the true value of their stocks were. Therefore, many smart investors came up with investment strategies to help determine whether they were making a good choice or not. Two well known strategies of the time were leverage and margin. Margin referred to investing on the assumption that the sock would increase in value rapidly, making it easy for one to pay back the money loaned from the bank. Leverage was the action of loaning out more money than you have, expecting to earn more profits and pay back the bank the original sum while having a larger profit gain. This option was only made possible after 1920, as banks had never before loaned out more money than one actually owned. However the roaring twenties induced a leniency within the banking system, making it a more relaxed process. Many expected there strategies to be infallible, however reality proved otherwise. The ‘speculative bubble’ was a term coined as a result of amateur stock buyers. This term essentially stated their belief that since many stock companies were succeeding, they would only continue to do so. Because of the sheer number of investments at the time, prices continued to go up, people continued to invest, and a bubble formed. This optimistic view of the system made many believe that certain industries were great, however the price of a stock doesn’t always reflect the true value of the share. In addition, at the time there wasn’t a difference between commercial and investment banks. Furthermore banks began to loan out on risky promises, ignoring the rules regarding who should and should be eligible for loans. Thus loans were given to weak customers, making the entire system considerably unstable.
The problem with the economic system was only aided by the unequal distribution of wealth. An estimated 60% of Americans were living under poverty; furthermore the middle class was not large enough to continue successful commerce. The income disparity was too high to have a successful market for products. The gap between the rich and the poor was incredible, along with the wealth gap between agriculture and industry, and Europe and the U.S. Workers were seen to earn too low of paychecks to afford the items being made, which led the supply of products to outweigh the demand, and the prices of said products to raise in order to buffer the cost spent to produce the wasted product. Because of this raise in prices, workers were unable to afford majority of products, and there wasn’t a large enough middle class to buy everything being produced. The rich were seen to get richer, and the poorer were seen to get poorer. This disproportion made the economy even more unstable, and paved the way for the crash of the stock market.
The stock market crash was in part based on the decreased demand and oversupply, the fall of the housing market, and overproduction in the farming industry. The improvement of technology led farmers to experience the most effective farming methods ever, however this quickly led to overproduction and the absence of commerce based on the lack of a middle class. Because of this uneven wealth distribution, farmers lost all price competition and couldn’t charge as much as they once could. Post war Europe wasn’t an option as a buyer for excess product, making sales even more difficult. Many farmers who had to abandon their businesses out of bankruptcy took refuge in factory jobs, and others chose to battle through the hard times. Those who chose to stay in business were soon pushed back down by the harsh weather of the 1920’s known as the dust bowl, which made it nearly impossible to grow anything. Many businesses that were feeling the pain of low demand continued to take out loans to stay afloat, and others took out loans because they believe they needed to produce more even though they were losing an audience. America was pushed to the point where citizens couldn’t afford or buy products as fast as they were being made, causing many to resort to the bare necessities rather than the extravagance they once craved. The once booming housing market crashed as well, leaving all construction and realty companies to diminish. Based on the fact that you only need one house, people stopped buying once they had bought one. This sudden change sparked paranoia in the minds of many, and freaked out the population. The fact that investments could be lost so easily caused the public to lose faith in the stock system, pull out their money, and stop investing.
The big crash of 1929 wiped out immense amounts of America’s money, and left almost everything and everyone in a poor state. A ripple effect hit the economy and society, first rendering the banks useless. They could no longer offer loans, as they had no money to offer. This hurt businesses because they had no source of money to help them get through the tough times. Many companies were forced to go bankrupt, which left workers without jobs. Since many people were laid of, nobody could afford to buy anything, leading to a lack of consumerism. The desperation of the times led many to do whatever it took to get by, leading to increased crime rates, and decreased civic engagement such as sports and entertainment. There was however one exception. Through the terrible times, movies were still seen to prevail. They offered as an escape from reality, and existed as one of the only profitable industries of the time. Those who were wise enough to pull out their investments in 1928 and had predicted the crash were able to prosper through the great depression, and realized that the best time to reinvest was right after the crash.
At the time, methods for fixing the economy was heavily debated by both the Democrats and the Republicans. As expected, the Republicans felt that the government shouldn’t interfere, and the economy should be left to fix itself. The laissez-faire, hands-off method was still believed to be the best option. On the other hand, the Democrats felt as though it was the duty of the government to fix the situation. They proposed to create recovery programs for the economy, and to use government money to boost failing businesses. In any case, the great crash acted as a much needed ‘reboot’ for the American economy. It had reached an uncontrollable state which was rising far too quickly. Although it sent the country into a difficult period, in the long run, 1929 changed the US economy for the better.
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Honors Essay 10 - The Great Depression & World War II
In 1933, after the great stock market crash of 1929, the Glass-Steagall Act (GSA) was passed by Congress to prevent banks from once again manipulating the stock market. Many banks had failed, and the American economy had been crippled based on their actions. During the roaring twenties a merge was seen between commercial and investment banks, and both forgot the reasons for their separation. Commercial banks were seen to collude with investment banks to buy new issues which would be sold back to the public, and the stocks of weak companies continued to be boosted far beyond their worth. This led speculative bubbles form everywhere which were ready to burst at any moment. These entangles affairs between banks led to a loss of all checks and balances, and organization. The GSA worked to set the banking system back to it’s original state: separated national, investment, and commercial banks. National banks would deal with government money, investment banks would deal with the stock market and business exchanges, and commercial banks were for local and independent use. For decades the GSA successfully enforced regulations and boundaries between banks, and ensured that the economy was rid of manipulation and dangerous loans. In addition the US found financial stability by protecting the money of depositors through FDIC, which ensured all deposits would stay within the commercial banks and not be poured into investment banks. Even though the system was prosperous, many years later the GSA was repealed after gradual weakening by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999. Politician Gramm believed that the modern banking system shouldn’t be confined, and should be allowed to mix however it pleases. The banking system had experienced a loss in market share due to security firms and over regulation, and banks had begun to create financial products that blurred the GSA’s acts in order to be able to compete. Just as it had in the late 1920’s, banks began to take risks and lose regulation and checks and balances. For these reasons, the repeal of the GSA was seen to greatly induce the economic crash of 2008. The Dodd-Frank Act of 2010 reinstated the GSA, and continues to manage our banking system today.
Following the Great Crash, a deep depression hit America. The failed economy affected all aspects of life and led the country into a very rough period. Profits, personal income, tax revenue and international trade plummeted, while crime, homelessness and unemployment skyrocketed. More than 4,000 banks were forced shut down after the stock market crash, as they quickly ran out of funds when everyone withdrew at once. Not only did unemployment rates raise from a mere 3% to 25%, but wages were reduced by more than 43%. Since many could not fall back on bank loans to support themselves, homelessness increased. In one isolated year, 1932, over 273,000 families were evicted from their homes. This led to the creation of makeshift towns known as “Hoovervilles,” mockingly named after the president, Herbert Hoover. These shanty towns were constructed out of trash and scavenged scrap by America’s homeless, and created communities of families which were extremely resentful of the president. In addition, more than one million families were forced to abandon their farms, as the Dust Bowl took a toll on America’s agriculture. After many years of overproduction and poor farming techniques (lack of crop rotation and nourishment of the soil), much of the land in the Midwest had been ruined. To top it off, a harsh drought occurred, leaving the land dry and infertile. Dust Storms overwhelmed the region, as there were no plants or moisture to keep the dust down when winds arrived. The dust covered everything and was inescapable. Furthermore, farmers and their families were left with limited options. They could attempt to move west and battle to find jobs in overpopulated areas, or battle out the drought despite having no income. Those who chose to move west became commonly known as “Oakeys,” and were highly discriminated against. Their arrival cluttered certain regions, and made jobs even more scarce, ultimately leaving many without incomes. Crime rates skyrocketed during the Great Depression, as desperation was everywhere. Money was so limited that laws no longer mattered to some people. Street sellers became very common, as desperation led many to sell all material possessions on the side of the road. Anything that wasn’t deemed necessary was sold to gain access to life-sustaining goods. This extreme poverty encompassed the era, and the quality of life had diminished.
In 1932 a group of WWI veterans and their families gathered in Washington D.C. to protest against the US Government. This group known as The Bonus Army called for the immediate payment of service certificates, which gave soldiers their salaries plus a compounded interest at a face value. These were distributed by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924, however couldn’t be redeemed until 1945. Many of these veterans had been unemployed since the beginning of the Great Depression, and were desperate for the money. Furthermore, The Bonus Army staged a peaceful protest. Although at first they didn’t catch the attention of Hoover, the increased protester population led the president to hire Douglas MacArthur to deal with the situation. Hoover’s goal was to have MacArthur calm the situation by peacefully sending the protestors away. However, MacArthur took matter into his own hands and treated them with aggression. He ordered the 3rd cavalry and 12th infantry regiments to advance the protest sites and open fire. Protesters were gassed and shot under MacArthur's orders, even when Hoover called for an end to the assault. Not only did this reflect poorly on Hoover, but America in general. Hoover was further seen as a president who resisted compliance with the public, and America was seen as a country that harmed the veterans who fought for their it. Any chance of reelection for Hoover was gone.
When it came to the election of 1932, Franklin Roosevelt held much more support than Hoover. Roosevelt’s campaign message was much better received by Americans for a few reasons. As a democrat, his interests were vested in the people rather than businesses. Roosevelt was an advocate for social welfare and helping the majority. After a long streak of republican presidents, Roosevelt was the change people were looking for. FDR intended to regulate the market and the economy, in the end allowing people to be able to buy more. Not only was this specific plan liked by many, but the general fact that FDR was interested in making changes gained a lot of popularity. FDR was also favored because Hoover’s reputation had been immensely damaged. Between The Bonus Army scandal, The Great Depression, and his “hands off” methods, Hoover was seen as a president who didn’t care enough about his country to make changes for the better. However, he did still gain some votes due to the group of rich capitalists who had fared well through the economic crash, and disliked FDR’s socialist policies. Upon Roosevelt’s election, a system called the New Deal was implimented. This system ensured that the government would provide adequate jobs and incomes for those who worked, as FDR realized people needed help with the process of finding an income. The New Deal’s main principles were identified as the three R’s: relief for the poor, economic recovery, and financial reform. This system created a multitude of government organizations which came to be known as the alphabet agencies, due to their long names with many acronyms. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was the main organization established by the New Deal. This group of government workers brought transparency to businesses, implemented more standards to prevent corruption, set prices, and created fair practices. In the end this controlled the stock market, banks, and set standards to the economy, all while uniting the government, industry, and labor. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) aided farmers by subsidizing them in return for lower output rates. In the long run this act eliminated overproduction, rebalanced the agricultural economy, and aided the Dust Bowl problem by limiting the use of soil and revitalizing the land. The Civilian Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) created many jobs by employing 18-24 year old unmarried men to plant trees, and build parks and roads. Much of their work was in efforts of fixing the harsh effects of the Dust Bowl. These manual labor jobs emphasized conservation while giving men the chance to gain an income. Within nine years over two and a half million men were provided food, clothing, shelter, and a stable $30 wage. Overall, these organizations appealed to the working class because they were tailored towards them. They had been the ones who were hit the hardest from the Great Depression, and they were in desperate need for help. FDR was able to also gain the support of women through the Works Progress Association (WPA). The organization hired a wide range of people, however focused on the employment of women. Many of these women were either single or widowed, and didn’t have a man to provide for them. Rather than falling into the stereotype, women left the home and took part in manual labor to gain an income. These job openings caused women to vote for Roosevelt as they saw his efforts to help everyone.
Some aspects of FDR’s New Deal can still be seen today. Government welfare programs such as Social Security, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), Securities Exchange Commission (SEC), and the Wagner Act/National Labor Relations Organization (NLRA) are a few examples. Until 1935, the US Social Security program was underfunded. FDR was able to revamp it into a permanent system that aided those in need, and retirement funds through the use of taxpayer money. Social Security still continues as a general welfare act, and provides benefits for the elderly and maternal welfare. After the crash of 1929, the FDIC worked to encourage people to invest money once again, to support the economy. Since people were reluctant to do so, the FDIC ensured all deposits to build a system of trust within the banking system. The FDIC continues to promote faith in America’s banks by ensuring all deposits up to $250,000, and currently ensures $9 trillion USD. The SEC continues to regulate interstate trade, commerce, stocks, and bonds. Its government regulation encouraged people to reinvest in the stock market, and broke down unnecessarily large utility companies which were bound to cause problems. The effects of these changes are reverberated through the US economy today. The Wagner Act or NLRA guaranteed the right to form labor unions, and bargain collectively. The implementation of this act proved to be problematic due to the overwhelming labor unrest at the time. Furthermore the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) was created by Roosevelt to handle the same work as the NRA, but split into 20 separate boards to manage the caseload. Today the NLB continues to provide the right to unionize, workers rights, and better working conditions. Upon the creation of these program, America’s wealthy and upper class feared the work of FDR. Their capitalistic ideology conflicted with such socialist programs, and caused them to believe that he would raise their taxes, and redistribute their money to others.
Not only was America experiencing changes in the thirties, but Europe and Asia were as well. As America continued to move politically towards the left, the rest of the world was seen to shift right. The Soviet Union had turned into a totalitarian regime, led by Joseph Stalin. He was attempting to gain complete control over the population, and become a worldly industrial power. At the beginning of WWII, the Soviet Union had an alliance with Germany; at the time it was an extremely distressed country. After WWI had stripped Germany of its pride, a military, and a stable economic system, the people looked for a charismatic leader who could return their country to its once strong state. Adolf Hitler, the fascist head of the Nationalist Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) stepped up and assumed the chancellor's position in 1933. Hitler gained widespread support because he was determined to return Germany to its once glorified position. The country’s desperation led to his assumption of power, and his ability to blame all negative events on the Jewish population. Within one years time, Hitler had centralized the entire German government under his own control. Later Hitler began to violate the Treaty of Versailles by expanding Germany’s military, and ignoring previous war reparations. Japan at the time was looking to expand its sphere of influence. For this reason, it declared war and invaded China in 1937, launching the Second Sino-Japanese War. Japan’s motives were to establish an empire, secure more raw materials, and hold more political power within the world. One of the monumental events during this war was the Rape of Nanking, which showed the brutality of the Japanese soldiers. This influenced how the US would eventually interact with Japan, and can be seen as part of the reason why Pearl Harbor happened. The actions of the Japanese interfered with US trades, and interfered with US territory (Philippines.) Italy at the time also had a new fascist leader, Benito Mussolini. He had assumed complete control over the people, and was advocating for the needs of the country to be put above the needs of an individual. Mussolini was looking to improve Italy’s economy, disseminate his political influence, and lastly, to gain more territory through expansion. For this reason, Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. This action ended up denouncing the League of Nations, as it showed a weakness in the institution through the inability to comply with article X. Article X had stated that anyone attacked by an outside force must be assisted by other members of The League. Even though both countries were members of The League, Ethiopia was denied relief and Italy was not stopped. Lastly, the Spanish Civil War occurred in 1936. Francisco Franco, a fascist, led a nationalist rebel group against the Spanish Republic. The rebels had gained support from Germany, which led the Nationalists to win. Franco held power for the next 36 years as the dictator of the country. It was because of this large scale war, that Spain did not enter into WWII. Throughout all of this, America held a neutral position, and despite being against much of what was happening overseas, did not interfere. Roosevelt didn’t want to involve the country in an event similar to WWI, and conflicts regarding industry did not appeal to the US. Furthermore, Congress showed an interest in isolationism by passing the Neutrality Acts. These laws prohibited any trade between America and those involved in war. Furthermore an embargo was placed upon Japan based on their invasion. Despite these laws, the US still traded with China during the Second Sino-Japanese War, which did not please Japan. This was seen as a contributing factor to Pearl Harbor. America also didn’t involve itself with the social darwinism displayed by Germany, as the US was still suffering from the Great Depression and there wasn’t much widespread support for the Jewish. Roosevelt did show interest in engaging in warfare because of possible threats, however America’s citizens made it clear that it wasn’t within their interests.
America’s main initiative for entering WWII was because of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japan had become angry at the US because of the embargo on oil trades with them, while continuing to trade with China. Oil was one of Japan most vital resources, leading them to become enemies with the US. The US had intercepted multiple threats from Japan regarding an attack, however was unable to foresee Pearl Harbor. The attack on Pearl Harbor, an American naval base, caused the US to declare war on Japan, and caused Germany to declare war on the US in order to uphold its alliance with Japan. The European and Pacific theaters catered the battle field for America during WWII. Dwight Eisenhower served as the Supreme Allied Commander of the US, and led most land and naval invasions in the European theater. General Douglas MacArthur became one of America’s most well known generals, as he pioneered and executed the island hopping strategy, and aerial war tactics used to win over the Pacific theater. The notorious Battle of the Midway occurred under MacArthur's leadership and was seen as a main turning point in the war. Upon America’s entrance in the war, the US was allied with France, England and Russia. However, the US had engaged in the war later than everyone else. Russia was originally allied with Germany, but Germany’s violation of their non-aggression act led Russia to declare war on them. The Yalta Conference occurred in February of 1945, and unified the leaders of the Western Powers against Germany. It was decided that they would all focus on eliminating the war in the European theater first, and return to finish off the Pacific. After Germany surrendered, the war in Europe ended. Germany had realized they were trapped on either end by the Soviet Union and the US. The Western Powers met once again at the Potsdam Conference in July of 1945 to discuss their plans with Japan. The Soviet Union retracted from war efforts against Japan, as both their military and economy could not withstand any more; however agreed to aid the US if it was still needed in six months. The Soviet Union never ended up entering the war, as America ended the war by dropping two atomic bombs on Japan.
Many changes in Eastern Europe took place in the last year of WWII. The Soviet Union began to gain worldly power, and drew an “iron curtain” between East and West Europe. The purpose of this was to separate communist territories from non-communist territories within countries under Russia’s control. This essentially divided Europe. This was extremely troublesome to America, as Russia was attempting to permeate communism throughout all of Europe. Communism and capitalism notoriously conflict, leading to the use of the atomic bomb. Rather than allowing the Soviet Union to attempt to gain control of Japan and further spread communism, the US used the bombs to end the war swiftly. This prevented any further invasions, and saved the lives of American soldiers. Following Germany’s unconditional surrender, its territories were split up between the four main allies: France, England, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Berlin fell within the Soviet Union’s territory, however it was also split. East Germany fell under the rule of the Eastern Powers (Soviet Union) and adopted communism, whereas West Germany fell under the power of the Western Powers (America) and adopted capitalism. These events are modernly seen as an usher towards the Cold War.
The Marshall Plan, also identified as the German Recovery Plan, was America’s push to aid Europe from the devastations of WWII. Named after George Marshall the Secretary of State, the Marshall plan worked to aid Western Germany’s recuperation in order to create a stable trading partner, modernize industry, and allow property by preventing another fascist leader from assuming power. In order to do so, the plan provided food rations to those who couldn’t afford sustenance, financial aid, and an education regarding the war and its history. The US’s main motivation for such actions was to prevent Germany from becoming a victim of the Soviet Union’s attempt to enforce communism. Although some Americans were skeptical of the plan, considering Germany was previously our enemy, it proved to be important that Germany was re-raised with a capitalist economy. In return for the help, America expected that Germany realize the situation they had created, and asked that they reflect and rebuild. To this day, the true events and causes of WWII continue to be taught in Germany.
Since Japan had unconditionally surrendered, the US was more lenient after war. Led by General MacArthur, efforts of rehabilitation between 1945 and 1952 attempted to prevent the spread of communism into Japan, and to procure a trade system by introducing capitalism and democracy. The prevention of communism was of the utmost importance, as the Soviet Union had began occupying the islands of North Japan. The probability of Russia further converting the country was too high of a risk to leave alone. Rather than leaving Japan to confide in Russia for help, the US was tolerant with them based on the unfamiliarity between countries. America provided changes to their educational system in order to create an understanding of the war similar to the changes made in Germany, and also created political and social reforms. These reforms provided the Japanese public with a larger voice in the government, considering the country was allowed to keep their emperor. The cultural barrier between the US and Japan also motivated America to aid Japan before Russia gained control of it.
Unfortunately racism and anti-semitism thrived in America during and after WWII, and relations between races were messy. The events at Pearl Harbor scared American citizens, and put Roosevelt under great pressure. Many were unsure whether or not Japan had placed spies within the US. Furthermore, Congress passed Executive Order 9066 which relocated all Americans of Japanese descent to internment camps. These citizens would be held for an unknown amount of time, and were only taken from the west coast. Hawaii was exempt from this order, as almost half its population had Japanese ancestry. One of the internment camps, Manzanar, located in California, held more than 10,000 people in its prime. People living in such camps experienced horrible living conditions, and were stripped of their jobs and possessions. Years later, protests from such incarcerated individuals prompted a formal apology from Congress, however it could never mask the social ostracism they experienced even after their release. Although reasons for this order are mainly due to the fear of spies, racism definitely aided the decision. Similarly, America was having a controversial crisis regarding Jewish immigrants. Many Jews had attempted to immigrate to the US in order to avoid the wrath of Hitler. However, anti-semitism also festered within America, and caused the government to turn them away. Despite the obvious hardships of the Jewish people, America sent them back to Europe in fear that their presence would affect foreign policies.
The cause of the end of The Great Depression is debated between a few reasons. Some would argue that WWII pulled the US out of the gutter, as heavy military involvement and creation of wartime jobs boosted the economy and provided incomes to many citizens. Others say that Roosevelt’s New Deal was extremely successful and walked the economy through the rough patch. Some agree with the statement “time heals all wounds,” and claim that the simple passing of time reset the economy and allowed the country to pick itself back up again. Though The Great Depression’s ending may be due to a conglomeration rather than a single finite reason, it was able to end by 1940.
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In 1933, after the great stock market crash of 1929, the Glass-Steagall Act (GSA) was passed by Congress to prevent banks from once again manipulating the stock market. Many banks had failed, and the American economy had been crippled based on their actions. During the roaring twenties a merge was seen between commercial and investment banks, and both forgot the reasons for their separation. Commercial banks were seen to collude with investment banks to buy new issues which would be sold back to the public, and the stocks of weak companies continued to be boosted far beyond their worth. This led speculative bubbles form everywhere which were ready to burst at any moment. These entangles affairs between banks led to a loss of all checks and balances, and organization. The GSA worked to set the banking system back to it’s original state: separated national, investment, and commercial banks. National banks would deal with government money, investment banks would deal with the stock market and business exchanges, and commercial banks were for local and independent use. For decades the GSA successfully enforced regulations and boundaries between banks, and ensured that the economy was rid of manipulation and dangerous loans. In addition the US found financial stability by protecting the money of depositors through FDIC, which ensured all deposits would stay within the commercial banks and not be poured into investment banks. Even though the system was prosperous, many years later the GSA was repealed after gradual weakening by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999. Politician Gramm believed that the modern banking system shouldn’t be confined, and should be allowed to mix however it pleases. The banking system had experienced a loss in market share due to security firms and over regulation, and banks had begun to create financial products that blurred the GSA’s acts in order to be able to compete. Just as it had in the late 1920’s, banks began to take risks and lose regulation and checks and balances. For these reasons, the repeal of the GSA was seen to greatly induce the economic crash of 2008. The Dodd-Frank Act of 2010 reinstated the GSA, and continues to manage our banking system today.
Following the Great Crash, a deep depression hit America. The failed economy affected all aspects of life and led the country into a very rough period. Profits, personal income, tax revenue and international trade plummeted, while crime, homelessness and unemployment skyrocketed. More than 4,000 banks were forced shut down after the stock market crash, as they quickly ran out of funds when everyone withdrew at once. Not only did unemployment rates raise from a mere 3% to 25%, but wages were reduced by more than 43%. Since many could not fall back on bank loans to support themselves, homelessness increased. In one isolated year, 1932, over 273,000 families were evicted from their homes. This led to the creation of makeshift towns known as “Hoovervilles,” mockingly named after the president, Herbert Hoover. These shanty towns were constructed out of trash and scavenged scrap by America’s homeless, and created communities of families which were extremely resentful of the president. In addition, more than one million families were forced to abandon their farms, as the Dust Bowl took a toll on America’s agriculture. After many years of overproduction and poor farming techniques (lack of crop rotation and nourishment of the soil), much of the land in the Midwest had been ruined. To top it off, a harsh drought occurred, leaving the land dry and infertile. Dust Storms overwhelmed the region, as there were no plants or moisture to keep the dust down when winds arrived. The dust covered everything and was inescapable. Furthermore, farmers and their families were left with limited options. They could attempt to move west and battle to find jobs in overpopulated areas, or battle out the drought despite having no income. Those who chose to move west became commonly known as “Oakeys,” and were highly discriminated against. Their arrival cluttered certain regions, and made jobs even more scarce, ultimately leaving many without incomes. Crime rates skyrocketed during the Great Depression, as desperation was everywhere. Money was so limited that laws no longer mattered to some people. Street sellers became very common, as desperation led many to sell all material possessions on the side of the road. Anything that wasn’t deemed necessary was sold to gain access to life-sustaining goods. This extreme poverty encompassed the era, and the quality of life had diminished.
In 1932 a group of WWI veterans and their families gathered in Washington D.C. to protest against the US Government. This group known as The Bonus Army called for the immediate payment of service certificates, which gave soldiers their salaries plus a compounded interest at a face value. These were distributed by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924, however couldn’t be redeemed until 1945. Many of these veterans had been unemployed since the beginning of the Great Depression, and were desperate for the money. Furthermore, The Bonus Army staged a peaceful protest. Although at first they didn’t catch the attention of Hoover, the increased protester population led the president to hire Douglas MacArthur to deal with the situation. Hoover’s goal was to have MacArthur calm the situation by peacefully sending the protestors away. However, MacArthur took matter into his own hands and treated them with aggression. He ordered the 3rd cavalry and 12th infantry regiments to advance the protest sites and open fire. Protesters were gassed and shot under MacArthur's orders, even when Hoover called for an end to the assault. Not only did this reflect poorly on Hoover, but America in general. Hoover was further seen as a president who resisted compliance with the public, and America was seen as a country that harmed the veterans who fought for their it. Any chance of reelection for Hoover was gone.
When it came to the election of 1932, Franklin Roosevelt held much more support than Hoover. Roosevelt’s campaign message was much better received by Americans for a few reasons. As a democrat, his interests were vested in the people rather than businesses. Roosevelt was an advocate for social welfare and helping the majority. After a long streak of republican presidents, Roosevelt was the change people were looking for. FDR intended to regulate the market and the economy, in the end allowing people to be able to buy more. Not only was this specific plan liked by many, but the general fact that FDR was interested in making changes gained a lot of popularity. FDR was also favored because Hoover’s reputation had been immensely damaged. Between The Bonus Army scandal, The Great Depression, and his “hands off” methods, Hoover was seen as a president who didn’t care enough about his country to make changes for the better. However, he did still gain some votes due to the group of rich capitalists who had fared well through the economic crash, and disliked FDR’s socialist policies. Upon Roosevelt’s election, a system called the New Deal was implimented. This system ensured that the government would provide adequate jobs and incomes for those who worked, as FDR realized people needed help with the process of finding an income. The New Deal’s main principles were identified as the three R’s: relief for the poor, economic recovery, and financial reform. This system created a multitude of government organizations which came to be known as the alphabet agencies, due to their long names with many acronyms. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was the main organization established by the New Deal. This group of government workers brought transparency to businesses, implemented more standards to prevent corruption, set prices, and created fair practices. In the end this controlled the stock market, banks, and set standards to the economy, all while uniting the government, industry, and labor. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) aided farmers by subsidizing them in return for lower output rates. In the long run this act eliminated overproduction, rebalanced the agricultural economy, and aided the Dust Bowl problem by limiting the use of soil and revitalizing the land. The Civilian Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) created many jobs by employing 18-24 year old unmarried men to plant trees, and build parks and roads. Much of their work was in efforts of fixing the harsh effects of the Dust Bowl. These manual labor jobs emphasized conservation while giving men the chance to gain an income. Within nine years over two and a half million men were provided food, clothing, shelter, and a stable $30 wage. Overall, these organizations appealed to the working class because they were tailored towards them. They had been the ones who were hit the hardest from the Great Depression, and they were in desperate need for help. FDR was able to also gain the support of women through the Works Progress Association (WPA). The organization hired a wide range of people, however focused on the employment of women. Many of these women were either single or widowed, and didn’t have a man to provide for them. Rather than falling into the stereotype, women left the home and took part in manual labor to gain an income. These job openings caused women to vote for Roosevelt as they saw his efforts to help everyone.
Some aspects of FDR’s New Deal can still be seen today. Government welfare programs such as Social Security, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), Securities Exchange Commission (SEC), and the Wagner Act/National Labor Relations Organization (NLRA) are a few examples. Until 1935, the US Social Security program was underfunded. FDR was able to revamp it into a permanent system that aided those in need, and retirement funds through the use of taxpayer money. Social Security still continues as a general welfare act, and provides benefits for the elderly and maternal welfare. After the crash of 1929, the FDIC worked to encourage people to invest money once again, to support the economy. Since people were reluctant to do so, the FDIC ensured all deposits to build a system of trust within the banking system. The FDIC continues to promote faith in America’s banks by ensuring all deposits up to $250,000, and currently ensures $9 trillion USD. The SEC continues to regulate interstate trade, commerce, stocks, and bonds. Its government regulation encouraged people to reinvest in the stock market, and broke down unnecessarily large utility companies which were bound to cause problems. The effects of these changes are reverberated through the US economy today. The Wagner Act or NLRA guaranteed the right to form labor unions, and bargain collectively. The implementation of this act proved to be problematic due to the overwhelming labor unrest at the time. Furthermore the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) was created by Roosevelt to handle the same work as the NRA, but split into 20 separate boards to manage the caseload. Today the NLB continues to provide the right to unionize, workers rights, and better working conditions. Upon the creation of these program, America’s wealthy and upper class feared the work of FDR. Their capitalistic ideology conflicted with such socialist programs, and caused them to believe that he would raise their taxes, and redistribute their money to others.
Not only was America experiencing changes in the thirties, but Europe and Asia were as well. As America continued to move politically towards the left, the rest of the world was seen to shift right. The Soviet Union had turned into a totalitarian regime, led by Joseph Stalin. He was attempting to gain complete control over the population, and become a worldly industrial power. At the beginning of WWII, the Soviet Union had an alliance with Germany; at the time it was an extremely distressed country. After WWI had stripped Germany of its pride, a military, and a stable economic system, the people looked for a charismatic leader who could return their country to its once strong state. Adolf Hitler, the fascist head of the Nationalist Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) stepped up and assumed the chancellor's position in 1933. Hitler gained widespread support because he was determined to return Germany to its once glorified position. The country’s desperation led to his assumption of power, and his ability to blame all negative events on the Jewish population. Within one years time, Hitler had centralized the entire German government under his own control. Later Hitler began to violate the Treaty of Versailles by expanding Germany’s military, and ignoring previous war reparations. Japan at the time was looking to expand its sphere of influence. For this reason, it declared war and invaded China in 1937, launching the Second Sino-Japanese War. Japan’s motives were to establish an empire, secure more raw materials, and hold more political power within the world. One of the monumental events during this war was the Rape of Nanking, which showed the brutality of the Japanese soldiers. This influenced how the US would eventually interact with Japan, and can be seen as part of the reason why Pearl Harbor happened. The actions of the Japanese interfered with US trades, and interfered with US territory (Philippines.) Italy at the time also had a new fascist leader, Benito Mussolini. He had assumed complete control over the people, and was advocating for the needs of the country to be put above the needs of an individual. Mussolini was looking to improve Italy’s economy, disseminate his political influence, and lastly, to gain more territory through expansion. For this reason, Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. This action ended up denouncing the League of Nations, as it showed a weakness in the institution through the inability to comply with article X. Article X had stated that anyone attacked by an outside force must be assisted by other members of The League. Even though both countries were members of The League, Ethiopia was denied relief and Italy was not stopped. Lastly, the Spanish Civil War occurred in 1936. Francisco Franco, a fascist, led a nationalist rebel group against the Spanish Republic. The rebels had gained support from Germany, which led the Nationalists to win. Franco held power for the next 36 years as the dictator of the country. It was because of this large scale war, that Spain did not enter into WWII. Throughout all of this, America held a neutral position, and despite being against much of what was happening overseas, did not interfere. Roosevelt didn’t want to involve the country in an event similar to WWI, and conflicts regarding industry did not appeal to the US. Furthermore, Congress showed an interest in isolationism by passing the Neutrality Acts. These laws prohibited any trade between America and those involved in war. Furthermore an embargo was placed upon Japan based on their invasion. Despite these laws, the US still traded with China during the Second Sino-Japanese War, which did not please Japan. This was seen as a contributing factor to Pearl Harbor. America also didn’t involve itself with the social darwinism displayed by Germany, as the US was still suffering from the Great Depression and there wasn’t much widespread support for the Jewish. Roosevelt did show interest in engaging in warfare because of possible threats, however America’s citizens made it clear that it wasn’t within their interests.
America’s main initiative for entering WWII was because of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japan had become angry at the US because of the embargo on oil trades with them, while continuing to trade with China. Oil was one of Japan most vital resources, leading them to become enemies with the US. The US had intercepted multiple threats from Japan regarding an attack, however was unable to foresee Pearl Harbor. The attack on Pearl Harbor, an American naval base, caused the US to declare war on Japan, and caused Germany to declare war on the US in order to uphold its alliance with Japan. The European and Pacific theaters catered the battle field for America during WWII. Dwight Eisenhower served as the Supreme Allied Commander of the US, and led most land and naval invasions in the European theater. General Douglas MacArthur became one of America’s most well known generals, as he pioneered and executed the island hopping strategy, and aerial war tactics used to win over the Pacific theater. The notorious Battle of the Midway occurred under MacArthur's leadership and was seen as a main turning point in the war. Upon America’s entrance in the war, the US was allied with France, England and Russia. However, the US had engaged in the war later than everyone else. Russia was originally allied with Germany, but Germany’s violation of their non-aggression act led Russia to declare war on them. The Yalta Conference occurred in February of 1945, and unified the leaders of the Western Powers against Germany. It was decided that they would all focus on eliminating the war in the European theater first, and return to finish off the Pacific. After Germany surrendered, the war in Europe ended. Germany had realized they were trapped on either end by the Soviet Union and the US. The Western Powers met once again at the Potsdam Conference in July of 1945 to discuss their plans with Japan. The Soviet Union retracted from war efforts against Japan, as both their military and economy could not withstand any more; however agreed to aid the US if it was still needed in six months. The Soviet Union never ended up entering the war, as America ended the war by dropping two atomic bombs on Japan.
Many changes in Eastern Europe took place in the last year of WWII. The Soviet Union began to gain worldly power, and drew an “iron curtain” between East and West Europe. The purpose of this was to separate communist territories from non-communist territories within countries under Russia’s control. This essentially divided Europe. This was extremely troublesome to America, as Russia was attempting to permeate communism throughout all of Europe. Communism and capitalism notoriously conflict, leading to the use of the atomic bomb. Rather than allowing the Soviet Union to attempt to gain control of Japan and further spread communism, the US used the bombs to end the war swiftly. This prevented any further invasions, and saved the lives of American soldiers. Following Germany’s unconditional surrender, its territories were split up between the four main allies: France, England, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Berlin fell within the Soviet Union’s territory, however it was also split. East Germany fell under the rule of the Eastern Powers (Soviet Union) and adopted communism, whereas West Germany fell under the power of the Western Powers (America) and adopted capitalism. These events are modernly seen as an usher towards the Cold War.
The Marshall Plan, also identified as the German Recovery Plan, was America’s push to aid Europe from the devastations of WWII. Named after George Marshall the Secretary of State, the Marshall plan worked to aid Western Germany’s recuperation in order to create a stable trading partner, modernize industry, and allow property by preventing another fascist leader from assuming power. In order to do so, the plan provided food rations to those who couldn’t afford sustenance, financial aid, and an education regarding the war and its history. The US’s main motivation for such actions was to prevent Germany from becoming a victim of the Soviet Union’s attempt to enforce communism. Although some Americans were skeptical of the plan, considering Germany was previously our enemy, it proved to be important that Germany was re-raised with a capitalist economy. In return for the help, America expected that Germany realize the situation they had created, and asked that they reflect and rebuild. To this day, the true events and causes of WWII continue to be taught in Germany.
Since Japan had unconditionally surrendered, the US was more lenient after war. Led by General MacArthur, efforts of rehabilitation between 1945 and 1952 attempted to prevent the spread of communism into Japan, and to procure a trade system by introducing capitalism and democracy. The prevention of communism was of the utmost importance, as the Soviet Union had began occupying the islands of North Japan. The probability of Russia further converting the country was too high of a risk to leave alone. Rather than leaving Japan to confide in Russia for help, the US was tolerant with them based on the unfamiliarity between countries. America provided changes to their educational system in order to create an understanding of the war similar to the changes made in Germany, and also created political and social reforms. These reforms provided the Japanese public with a larger voice in the government, considering the country was allowed to keep their emperor. The cultural barrier between the US and Japan also motivated America to aid Japan before Russia gained control of it.
Unfortunately racism and anti-semitism thrived in America during and after WWII, and relations between races were messy. The events at Pearl Harbor scared American citizens, and put Roosevelt under great pressure. Many were unsure whether or not Japan had placed spies within the US. Furthermore, Congress passed Executive Order 9066 which relocated all Americans of Japanese descent to internment camps. These citizens would be held for an unknown amount of time, and were only taken from the west coast. Hawaii was exempt from this order, as almost half its population had Japanese ancestry. One of the internment camps, Manzanar, located in California, held more than 10,000 people in its prime. People living in such camps experienced horrible living conditions, and were stripped of their jobs and possessions. Years later, protests from such incarcerated individuals prompted a formal apology from Congress, however it could never mask the social ostracism they experienced even after their release. Although reasons for this order are mainly due to the fear of spies, racism definitely aided the decision. Similarly, America was having a controversial crisis regarding Jewish immigrants. Many Jews had attempted to immigrate to the US in order to avoid the wrath of Hitler. However, anti-semitism also festered within America, and caused the government to turn them away. Despite the obvious hardships of the Jewish people, America sent them back to Europe in fear that their presence would affect foreign policies.
The cause of the end of The Great Depression is debated between a few reasons. Some would argue that WWII pulled the US out of the gutter, as heavy military involvement and creation of wartime jobs boosted the economy and provided incomes to many citizens. Others say that Roosevelt’s New Deal was extremely successful and walked the economy through the rough patch. Some agree with the statement “time heals all wounds,” and claim that the simple passing of time reset the economy and allowed the country to pick itself back up again. Though The Great Depression’s ending may be due to a conglomeration rather than a single finite reason, it was able to end by 1940.
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Honors Essay 11 - The 1950's
Capitalism and communism have many economic differences, as they each contain almost polar opposite ideologies. Capitalism thrives in a democratic government system which is driven by a free market. Wealth is distributed unevenly based each individual’s labor, property is privately owned rather than by the government, multiple political parties exist, and there are specific classes which each person belongs to. This is social hierarchy is dictated by socioeconomic diversity within the population. As a general institution, capitalism focuses on the progress and success of individuals, and money is given where money is due. On the other hand, communism thrives in a totalitarian government system where the state controls all resources. All property is owned by the state, the market is completely controlled, and all wealth is distributed equally. Based on this, communism develops a classless society as everyone belongs to the same economic level. Communism constitutes a system of progress as a community, hence its name. Rather than individual initiative, communism promotes collective work as a society and attempts to politically encompass everyone’s opinions within one government party. These two systems can never be compatible because their ideologies are so contrasting. Capitalists believe in freedom, and the benefits of competition. In addition, capitalists believe that those who make better use of their abilities should be rewarded, and that the government shouldn’t interfere with the rights of an individual or the economy. The ideology of communism contradicts this. Communists believe that people need one another and that collective work achieves greater things. Equality is critical as it ensures everyone’s needs are met without unfair advantages, and that the economy will always be safely controlled. The two could never attempt to coexist as something as simple as ownership couldn’t be decided upon.
The arms race ensued World War II when Russia wanted to acquire an atomic bomb. The United States had already successfully innovated nuclear weapons, however Russia had not yet reached the same level. This sparked a ‘race’ as other world powers looked to obtain similar weapons of mass destruction. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg played a key role in the Soviet Union’s ability to develop nuclear weapons so quickly. Both Julius and Ethel were convicted of sending classified information to Russia from Ethel’s brother, David Greenglass, who took part in the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos, New Mexico. In the end both the Rosenbergs received a death sentence, however even though they died, their actions continued to provoke an immense amount of fear within the US. First, the idea that Soviet/communist spies were able to work inside the US frightened people as nobody was sure who they could trust. In addition, the fact that Russia, the United States largest competitor, has just reached a military level that equalled theirs was extremely alarming. They were now capable of destroying the US’s capitalist society whenever they chose to. Using the secrets from the Rosenbergs, the Soviet Union began mass producing atomic bombs in order to prevent an attack from the United States. Similarly the United States also began to increase their nuclear weapon supplies in fear that the Soviet’s would use theirs. This race for the upper hand sparked the arms race and began the Cold War. Mutually assured destruction (MAD) was an agreement created at this time. This concept essentially described what would happen should the Cold War turn ‘hot’. If either the US or the Soviet Union decided to release an atomic bomb on the other, a retaliation would definitely ensue. Essentially the action of one country bombing the other would destroy themselves and the rest of the world. This is seen as the main reason why the Cold War never saw any actual fighting, as both the US and the Soviet Union were unaware of the bomb’s destructive potential and feared the consequences. In addition, MAD allowed both countries to realize that the bombs were just tokens of power, and were unnecessary. However, this potential danger continued to evoke paranoia worldwide. Many people panicked because they had seen the destruction done to Japan and were unsure if the same would happen to them. Furthermore, many people were seen to take precautionary actions such as building bomb and fallout shelters. Bomb shelters were intended to protect against the actual blast of a bomb, whereas fallout shelters were developed specifically for nuclear bombs and the resulting lethal radiation. Safety drills also began to take place in schools and workplaces throughout America. Some felt confident that widespread ‘duck and cover’ precaution would allow them to survive nuclear blasts, however in hindsight that idea is pretty far fetched. Spies became an essential component to the arms race, as secret information proved necessary for national security. Furthermore the CIA and covert operations were created. The fear American’s had of communism spreading caused the Red Scare, which consisted of constant paranoia and political agendas against communism. Overall, the fear of communism permeated through America. With Soviet spies on our land and the possibility of Soviets attacking the US with their own bombs, the Soviet Union presented a deep threat to America.
The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was created in 1938 during WWII as an investigative committee in the House of Representatives, that was in charge of investigating German Nazis. However when the Red Scare was initiated during the Cold War, the HUAC shifted its focus towards the threats of communism within the country. The HUAC believed that many communists were in America’s motion picture industry, and feared their power over the country. By using subpoenas, the HUAC summoned many Hollywood A-listers to court who were under suspicion. These actions further spread paranoia, as the beloved faces of America were being accused of undermining the country. Influenced by American senator Joseph McCarthy, This series of accusations came to be known as ‘witch hunts’ or ‘McCarthyism.’ McCarthy consistently made accusations against Hollywood’s elite, military personnel, and innocent people without evidence in efforts of furthering his own political career. He was most well known for creating ‘lists’ of people he believed were communists within the US, however never actually released the names. Alger Hiss, a government official and member of UN, was also accused of being a communist by McCarthy. Although Hiss denied the accusation, McCarthy was able to obtain documents and sources proving that he was guilty. It is because of this one correct accusation that McCarthy was able to gain a following, and lead many to believe all of his assumptions were correct. Although fear of communism was widespread, some people still believed in the constitutional freedom of speech. Furthermore, the ‘Hollywood 10’ stepped forward. This was a group of 10 individuals who refused to answer McCarthy’s persistent questions to stand up for their rights. In the end, these 10 A-listers were blacklisted for majority of the Cold War, as the fear of communism blinded Americans beyond belief. As McCarthy continued to brand many government officials as communists without evidence, he was eventually censored by the US Senate. His accusations had reached a level of unrealisticness which people no longer believed. In addition, he lost popularity when people saw the way he treated suspects. He brutally questioned and interrogated innocent people. When his harsh methods were put in display on the television, the American public saw him in a different light.
Following WWII, many conflicts took place in the USSR. The Soviet Bloc involved Czechoslovakia and the Iron Curtain, as Czechoslovakia wanted financial aid from the US. However, the Soviet Union drew the Iron curtain across the country before the US could become involved. This caused Czechoslovakia to become a communist country against its wishes, and blocked out aid from the US. In response to this situation in Eastern Europe, America established the Truman Doctrine. This intended to further limit the spread of communism by confronting and containing the problem. To do so, the US vowed to aid countries which were close to falling under communism, both economically and with supplies. Furthermore, Truman stated that America would provide military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey in order to prevent the USSR from overrunning them. However, Greece and Turkey were in the midst of a civil war against each other. Regardless, the threat of communism prevailed. The Truman Doctrine was seen to be controversial, as it can be considered the official beginning of the Cold War, and the first true act of defiance against the USSR.
Following WWII, Berlin and Germany were both split between the USSR, USA, France and England in order to avoid conflict. Russia had created its iron curtain that fell across a lot of Eastern Europe, so the allies unified their German territory to promote capitalism in Europe. However, with Berlin being in the center of East Germany, it made it difficult for the allies to control it and Russia was unhappy with their 1-3 disadvantage. This soon became the center of conflict as Russia blocked off all railways from West Germany into Berlin, and cleared a blockade that kept allies from delivering supplies to their territory. Berlin quickly became the epicenter of the Cold War, as the situation only grew worse as Russia saw people attempting to immigrate out of East Germany towards the West. Their loss of power to capitalism fueled their creation of the Berlin Blockade. This blockade was meant to show that communism was stronger than capitalism, however the allies were able to find a way around it...or rather over it. The US began to fly in supplies to West Berlin. Known as the Berlin Airlift, this operation involved over 1,000 planes per day. Although the Russia saw this happening, no action was taken against it, as an attack could have caused a third world war. This was seen as the first Cold War international conflict. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed in 1949, and allied the US, Canada, Great Britain, France, and many other European countries. It worked to prevent communism from continuing to spread, and specifically worked to prevent the unification of a communist Germany. Although NATO was mainly formed to defend the capitalists within Russia, Russia’s involvement with the Czech Republic was seen to influence its creation. One of the agreements within NATO was that an attack on one NATO country would be considered an attack against all of them. The Warsaw Pact was another alliance created at the time, however was essentially NATO’s opponent. Comprised of the USSR and the rest of communist Eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact sought to unify Germany under communist rule and overall, prevent the spread of capitalism. Unlike NATO, countries couldn’t chose if they wanted to be a part of it. Instead, any country Russia occupied was required to be a member.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was created during this Cold War conflict, spy-driven time. During the Cold War, the CIA was responsible for a string series of coup-d’etats and instating dictatorships in foreign countries; all of which produced blowback for the US. In 1953 a coup-d’etat occurred in Iran. However, it was the United States and United Kingdom’s governments that worked together to plan the overthrow of the Iranian government. Iran, known for it’s incredible oil reserves, was under the rule of Mossadegh when conflicts regarding oil occurred. Mossadegh had been democratically elected by the Iranian people and believed that Iran should be the one who was profiting from their oil. However, this didn’t benefit the US. Furthermore, rather than letting the opportunity pass, the US appointed the Shah as the new leader of Iran. In addition, the US instituted special police forces to avoid protests from the Iranian people and preserve the oil partnership which benefitted America. In any case, the Iranians hated the Shah. Blowback occurred when they rebelled, brought down the puppet government, and left the leadership position unstable. Hostages were taken from the American embassy in Iran, and a hatred against America was created. This was even further fueled when the Shah was accepted into American territory when looking for medical treatment. Guatemala experienced a similar situation. Guatemala’s leader, Arbenz, wanted the country to profit from the nationalization of the United Fruit Company (UFC). UFC had owned and controlled over 40% of usable land in the country, and Arbenz wanted the country to profit from its own land and crops. However, since the UFC was an American company, it asked for the US’s assistance in the situation. Colonel Armas, a Guatemalan military dictator was put into power by the US government in order to gain profits for America. Although the public did not favor him (he lead the country into poverty), Armas held onto power to prevent communism in Guatemala. This coup kindled the 36 year long Guatemalan Revolution. In the long term, these actions by the CIA caused immense blow back for the United States. Relations with both Guatemala and Iran were ruined, and both countries grew to resent America. Iran’s hatred towards the US lasted for over 20 years and continues to affect modern day politics. The CIA’s actions can even be seen to have caused the Iran Contra Affair, and even more recent events such as 9/11 and the rise of ISIS’s power.
China had put its civil war on hold during WWII when the Second Sino Japanese War began. However after Japan left China, the war continued. The civil war was essentially between capitalism and communism. Chiang-Kei-Shek supported capitalism and led the Nationalist Party. He was supported by the Unites States, and was against the communist party and its leader, Mao Tse-Tung. In the end the communists won and the Nationalist party fled to Taiwan. There they established the National Republic of China, which was recognized by the US rather than the actual China which had turned red. This event was incredibly alarming as China was now a completely communist country. Its influence was large and was now pitted against the US. The possibility that the rest of Asia could follow in China’s footsteps was growing, and the support of the USSR for communism was spreading. This fear was the leading cause for the United States’ involvement in the Korean and Vietnam war, as America was attempting to prevent communism from spreading through Asia any more that it already had.
After Japan left Korea, Korea was split in half along the 38th parallel. The North was communist and influenced by Russia, while the South was capitalist and influenced by the United States. Although border disputes had already been occurring for some time, tensions escalated in 1950 when the north, with the support of Russia, invaded the south. This began the Korean War. After getting permission from the UN, the United States joined the war effort on the grounds that it was the only way to prevent the further spread of communism and the USSR from taking over the world. American General Douglas MacArthur joined forces with South Korea and lead an attack against the North. He was very successful in forcing the border further north over time, however China became quickly threatened when their borders were approached. Furthermore, China began to aid North Korea. Since China was also allied with the Soviet Union, MacArthur was told not to threaten China as they weren’t the enemy and could cause great conflict. However, despite the possibility of WWIII MacArthur felt it was necessary to be more direct, and potentially invade China to win the war. Due to this insubordination, MacArthur was relieved from his duties by President Truman and was sent home. Although MacArthur’s actions could have been detrimental, he was welcomed home as a war hero by the American public. Ironically, the Korean war ended in the same place it started. In 1953 a treaty was created between the US and Korea which reinstated the previous border at the 38th parallel. Many American’s look back at the war as a waste of soldier’s lives, as no one really knew why the war was happening or who the real enemy was.
The 1950’s brought along a movement known as the Beat Generation. Those who belonged to this movement, known as ‘Beatniks,’ went against American conformity and the traditional values of society. Their actions went against societal norms and involved the use of illegal drugs, religion, eastern culture, and individualistic style. These ‘pre-hippies’ were known for their coffee shops and the start of slam poetry. They were inspired by the works of Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, poets of the beat generation who opposed capitalism and conformity. Kerouac was coined the “father of the beat generation” as he was very receptive to ideas and allowed this creativity to influence his work. In 1955, the movie Rebel Without a Cause was released. The young protagonist, Jim Stark, who dealt with 1950’s societal problems and resisted conformity, became an icon to the youth of America at the time. The movie connected to the ideology of the Beatniks as the flaws of the 50’s were displayed. By addressing these flaws and the false peace of the Cold War, the 1960’s were able to see a larger sense of personal individuality and freedom when it came to society’s standards.
After WWII, the United States saw many changes. The term ‘American Dream’ was coined, as it became desirous in society to get a quality education, earn a college degree, raise a family and have an active role in society. This conformity allowed society to brainwash its citizens and stray them away from individuality or creativity in order to achieve the ‘perfect’ life. The ‘baby boom’ took place directly after the war when many soldiers returned home to their significant others. In a single decade more than 4 million babies were born, creating the largest American generation ever. Despite the Cold War, many were feeling optimistic about the future and continued to expand their families by having more and more children. A phenomenon known as the ‘white flight’ took place and caused many white Americans to leave the cities and begin their lives in the suburbs. These family oriented neighborhoods had identical houses and portrayed the ideal American family. This caused the minorities to be left in the cities. Since they were unable to pay the heavy city taxes, the minorities had even less money and decreased the size of the middle class. A rise in advertisements and products occurred in the 50’s, and everyone was being encouraged to own the same commodities as their neighbors. Consumerism recommended conformity and set a standard for ‘proper’ American living. Similar to consumerism in the 1920’s, the 1950’s took on the stance that one’s success was based on how much one was able to afford. Furthermore, consumerism skyrocketed. Many companies realized that most people only needed one of their product, hence the creation of planned obsolescence. Planned obsolescence was where products would be made to last a certain amount of time before they purposely broke. This would cause a constant demand for products and ensured that companies would always have customers. In addition, society adapted the idea of ‘buy now, pay later.’ This was the precursor to the credit card, as certain stores began to offer credit to customers. This allowed them to spend as much as they wanted without worrying about the amount, as they could pay it all back once they had the money. All progress on gender equality was obsolete in the 50’s. Women were encouraged to return to the household and focus on taking care of the family while the men brought home the bacon. Entertainment such as television shows and movies such as Leave it to Beaver, portrayed what the typical American family was said to be like. The election of Dwight Eisenhower was also a large event that took place at the time. After the Cold War and events of McCarthyism, much of America was tried of both the Democratic Party and President Truman. The change they wanted to see was with Eisenhower. Eisenhower and his running mate, Richard Nixon, initially held majority of votes in the beginning of his campaign. However word got out that Nixon was accepting bribes to unfairly further their campaign. After Nixon personally addressed and denied the issue over live television, Eisenhower’s reputation was saved and he continued on to win the election. In general, the 50’s was a time where America had a great facade. Although the country was presenting itself as being well put together and exceptionally ‘nice,’ the truth was that the Cold War was taking its toll on America. Fear consumed the era.
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Capitalism and communism have many economic differences, as they each contain almost polar opposite ideologies. Capitalism thrives in a democratic government system which is driven by a free market. Wealth is distributed unevenly based each individual’s labor, property is privately owned rather than by the government, multiple political parties exist, and there are specific classes which each person belongs to. This is social hierarchy is dictated by socioeconomic diversity within the population. As a general institution, capitalism focuses on the progress and success of individuals, and money is given where money is due. On the other hand, communism thrives in a totalitarian government system where the state controls all resources. All property is owned by the state, the market is completely controlled, and all wealth is distributed equally. Based on this, communism develops a classless society as everyone belongs to the same economic level. Communism constitutes a system of progress as a community, hence its name. Rather than individual initiative, communism promotes collective work as a society and attempts to politically encompass everyone’s opinions within one government party. These two systems can never be compatible because their ideologies are so contrasting. Capitalists believe in freedom, and the benefits of competition. In addition, capitalists believe that those who make better use of their abilities should be rewarded, and that the government shouldn’t interfere with the rights of an individual or the economy. The ideology of communism contradicts this. Communists believe that people need one another and that collective work achieves greater things. Equality is critical as it ensures everyone’s needs are met without unfair advantages, and that the economy will always be safely controlled. The two could never attempt to coexist as something as simple as ownership couldn’t be decided upon.
The arms race ensued World War II when Russia wanted to acquire an atomic bomb. The United States had already successfully innovated nuclear weapons, however Russia had not yet reached the same level. This sparked a ‘race’ as other world powers looked to obtain similar weapons of mass destruction. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg played a key role in the Soviet Union’s ability to develop nuclear weapons so quickly. Both Julius and Ethel were convicted of sending classified information to Russia from Ethel’s brother, David Greenglass, who took part in the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos, New Mexico. In the end both the Rosenbergs received a death sentence, however even though they died, their actions continued to provoke an immense amount of fear within the US. First, the idea that Soviet/communist spies were able to work inside the US frightened people as nobody was sure who they could trust. In addition, the fact that Russia, the United States largest competitor, has just reached a military level that equalled theirs was extremely alarming. They were now capable of destroying the US’s capitalist society whenever they chose to. Using the secrets from the Rosenbergs, the Soviet Union began mass producing atomic bombs in order to prevent an attack from the United States. Similarly the United States also began to increase their nuclear weapon supplies in fear that the Soviet’s would use theirs. This race for the upper hand sparked the arms race and began the Cold War. Mutually assured destruction (MAD) was an agreement created at this time. This concept essentially described what would happen should the Cold War turn ‘hot’. If either the US or the Soviet Union decided to release an atomic bomb on the other, a retaliation would definitely ensue. Essentially the action of one country bombing the other would destroy themselves and the rest of the world. This is seen as the main reason why the Cold War never saw any actual fighting, as both the US and the Soviet Union were unaware of the bomb’s destructive potential and feared the consequences. In addition, MAD allowed both countries to realize that the bombs were just tokens of power, and were unnecessary. However, this potential danger continued to evoke paranoia worldwide. Many people panicked because they had seen the destruction done to Japan and were unsure if the same would happen to them. Furthermore, many people were seen to take precautionary actions such as building bomb and fallout shelters. Bomb shelters were intended to protect against the actual blast of a bomb, whereas fallout shelters were developed specifically for nuclear bombs and the resulting lethal radiation. Safety drills also began to take place in schools and workplaces throughout America. Some felt confident that widespread ‘duck and cover’ precaution would allow them to survive nuclear blasts, however in hindsight that idea is pretty far fetched. Spies became an essential component to the arms race, as secret information proved necessary for national security. Furthermore the CIA and covert operations were created. The fear American’s had of communism spreading caused the Red Scare, which consisted of constant paranoia and political agendas against communism. Overall, the fear of communism permeated through America. With Soviet spies on our land and the possibility of Soviets attacking the US with their own bombs, the Soviet Union presented a deep threat to America.
The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was created in 1938 during WWII as an investigative committee in the House of Representatives, that was in charge of investigating German Nazis. However when the Red Scare was initiated during the Cold War, the HUAC shifted its focus towards the threats of communism within the country. The HUAC believed that many communists were in America’s motion picture industry, and feared their power over the country. By using subpoenas, the HUAC summoned many Hollywood A-listers to court who were under suspicion. These actions further spread paranoia, as the beloved faces of America were being accused of undermining the country. Influenced by American senator Joseph McCarthy, This series of accusations came to be known as ‘witch hunts’ or ‘McCarthyism.’ McCarthy consistently made accusations against Hollywood’s elite, military personnel, and innocent people without evidence in efforts of furthering his own political career. He was most well known for creating ‘lists’ of people he believed were communists within the US, however never actually released the names. Alger Hiss, a government official and member of UN, was also accused of being a communist by McCarthy. Although Hiss denied the accusation, McCarthy was able to obtain documents and sources proving that he was guilty. It is because of this one correct accusation that McCarthy was able to gain a following, and lead many to believe all of his assumptions were correct. Although fear of communism was widespread, some people still believed in the constitutional freedom of speech. Furthermore, the ‘Hollywood 10’ stepped forward. This was a group of 10 individuals who refused to answer McCarthy’s persistent questions to stand up for their rights. In the end, these 10 A-listers were blacklisted for majority of the Cold War, as the fear of communism blinded Americans beyond belief. As McCarthy continued to brand many government officials as communists without evidence, he was eventually censored by the US Senate. His accusations had reached a level of unrealisticness which people no longer believed. In addition, he lost popularity when people saw the way he treated suspects. He brutally questioned and interrogated innocent people. When his harsh methods were put in display on the television, the American public saw him in a different light.
Following WWII, many conflicts took place in the USSR. The Soviet Bloc involved Czechoslovakia and the Iron Curtain, as Czechoslovakia wanted financial aid from the US. However, the Soviet Union drew the Iron curtain across the country before the US could become involved. This caused Czechoslovakia to become a communist country against its wishes, and blocked out aid from the US. In response to this situation in Eastern Europe, America established the Truman Doctrine. This intended to further limit the spread of communism by confronting and containing the problem. To do so, the US vowed to aid countries which were close to falling under communism, both economically and with supplies. Furthermore, Truman stated that America would provide military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey in order to prevent the USSR from overrunning them. However, Greece and Turkey were in the midst of a civil war against each other. Regardless, the threat of communism prevailed. The Truman Doctrine was seen to be controversial, as it can be considered the official beginning of the Cold War, and the first true act of defiance against the USSR.
Following WWII, Berlin and Germany were both split between the USSR, USA, France and England in order to avoid conflict. Russia had created its iron curtain that fell across a lot of Eastern Europe, so the allies unified their German territory to promote capitalism in Europe. However, with Berlin being in the center of East Germany, it made it difficult for the allies to control it and Russia was unhappy with their 1-3 disadvantage. This soon became the center of conflict as Russia blocked off all railways from West Germany into Berlin, and cleared a blockade that kept allies from delivering supplies to their territory. Berlin quickly became the epicenter of the Cold War, as the situation only grew worse as Russia saw people attempting to immigrate out of East Germany towards the West. Their loss of power to capitalism fueled their creation of the Berlin Blockade. This blockade was meant to show that communism was stronger than capitalism, however the allies were able to find a way around it...or rather over it. The US began to fly in supplies to West Berlin. Known as the Berlin Airlift, this operation involved over 1,000 planes per day. Although the Russia saw this happening, no action was taken against it, as an attack could have caused a third world war. This was seen as the first Cold War international conflict. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed in 1949, and allied the US, Canada, Great Britain, France, and many other European countries. It worked to prevent communism from continuing to spread, and specifically worked to prevent the unification of a communist Germany. Although NATO was mainly formed to defend the capitalists within Russia, Russia’s involvement with the Czech Republic was seen to influence its creation. One of the agreements within NATO was that an attack on one NATO country would be considered an attack against all of them. The Warsaw Pact was another alliance created at the time, however was essentially NATO’s opponent. Comprised of the USSR and the rest of communist Eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact sought to unify Germany under communist rule and overall, prevent the spread of capitalism. Unlike NATO, countries couldn’t chose if they wanted to be a part of it. Instead, any country Russia occupied was required to be a member.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was created during this Cold War conflict, spy-driven time. During the Cold War, the CIA was responsible for a string series of coup-d’etats and instating dictatorships in foreign countries; all of which produced blowback for the US. In 1953 a coup-d’etat occurred in Iran. However, it was the United States and United Kingdom’s governments that worked together to plan the overthrow of the Iranian government. Iran, known for it’s incredible oil reserves, was under the rule of Mossadegh when conflicts regarding oil occurred. Mossadegh had been democratically elected by the Iranian people and believed that Iran should be the one who was profiting from their oil. However, this didn’t benefit the US. Furthermore, rather than letting the opportunity pass, the US appointed the Shah as the new leader of Iran. In addition, the US instituted special police forces to avoid protests from the Iranian people and preserve the oil partnership which benefitted America. In any case, the Iranians hated the Shah. Blowback occurred when they rebelled, brought down the puppet government, and left the leadership position unstable. Hostages were taken from the American embassy in Iran, and a hatred against America was created. This was even further fueled when the Shah was accepted into American territory when looking for medical treatment. Guatemala experienced a similar situation. Guatemala’s leader, Arbenz, wanted the country to profit from the nationalization of the United Fruit Company (UFC). UFC had owned and controlled over 40% of usable land in the country, and Arbenz wanted the country to profit from its own land and crops. However, since the UFC was an American company, it asked for the US’s assistance in the situation. Colonel Armas, a Guatemalan military dictator was put into power by the US government in order to gain profits for America. Although the public did not favor him (he lead the country into poverty), Armas held onto power to prevent communism in Guatemala. This coup kindled the 36 year long Guatemalan Revolution. In the long term, these actions by the CIA caused immense blow back for the United States. Relations with both Guatemala and Iran were ruined, and both countries grew to resent America. Iran’s hatred towards the US lasted for over 20 years and continues to affect modern day politics. The CIA’s actions can even be seen to have caused the Iran Contra Affair, and even more recent events such as 9/11 and the rise of ISIS’s power.
China had put its civil war on hold during WWII when the Second Sino Japanese War began. However after Japan left China, the war continued. The civil war was essentially between capitalism and communism. Chiang-Kei-Shek supported capitalism and led the Nationalist Party. He was supported by the Unites States, and was against the communist party and its leader, Mao Tse-Tung. In the end the communists won and the Nationalist party fled to Taiwan. There they established the National Republic of China, which was recognized by the US rather than the actual China which had turned red. This event was incredibly alarming as China was now a completely communist country. Its influence was large and was now pitted against the US. The possibility that the rest of Asia could follow in China’s footsteps was growing, and the support of the USSR for communism was spreading. This fear was the leading cause for the United States’ involvement in the Korean and Vietnam war, as America was attempting to prevent communism from spreading through Asia any more that it already had.
After Japan left Korea, Korea was split in half along the 38th parallel. The North was communist and influenced by Russia, while the South was capitalist and influenced by the United States. Although border disputes had already been occurring for some time, tensions escalated in 1950 when the north, with the support of Russia, invaded the south. This began the Korean War. After getting permission from the UN, the United States joined the war effort on the grounds that it was the only way to prevent the further spread of communism and the USSR from taking over the world. American General Douglas MacArthur joined forces with South Korea and lead an attack against the North. He was very successful in forcing the border further north over time, however China became quickly threatened when their borders were approached. Furthermore, China began to aid North Korea. Since China was also allied with the Soviet Union, MacArthur was told not to threaten China as they weren’t the enemy and could cause great conflict. However, despite the possibility of WWIII MacArthur felt it was necessary to be more direct, and potentially invade China to win the war. Due to this insubordination, MacArthur was relieved from his duties by President Truman and was sent home. Although MacArthur’s actions could have been detrimental, he was welcomed home as a war hero by the American public. Ironically, the Korean war ended in the same place it started. In 1953 a treaty was created between the US and Korea which reinstated the previous border at the 38th parallel. Many American’s look back at the war as a waste of soldier’s lives, as no one really knew why the war was happening or who the real enemy was.
The 1950’s brought along a movement known as the Beat Generation. Those who belonged to this movement, known as ‘Beatniks,’ went against American conformity and the traditional values of society. Their actions went against societal norms and involved the use of illegal drugs, religion, eastern culture, and individualistic style. These ‘pre-hippies’ were known for their coffee shops and the start of slam poetry. They were inspired by the works of Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, poets of the beat generation who opposed capitalism and conformity. Kerouac was coined the “father of the beat generation” as he was very receptive to ideas and allowed this creativity to influence his work. In 1955, the movie Rebel Without a Cause was released. The young protagonist, Jim Stark, who dealt with 1950’s societal problems and resisted conformity, became an icon to the youth of America at the time. The movie connected to the ideology of the Beatniks as the flaws of the 50’s were displayed. By addressing these flaws and the false peace of the Cold War, the 1960’s were able to see a larger sense of personal individuality and freedom when it came to society’s standards.
After WWII, the United States saw many changes. The term ‘American Dream’ was coined, as it became desirous in society to get a quality education, earn a college degree, raise a family and have an active role in society. This conformity allowed society to brainwash its citizens and stray them away from individuality or creativity in order to achieve the ‘perfect’ life. The ‘baby boom’ took place directly after the war when many soldiers returned home to their significant others. In a single decade more than 4 million babies were born, creating the largest American generation ever. Despite the Cold War, many were feeling optimistic about the future and continued to expand their families by having more and more children. A phenomenon known as the ‘white flight’ took place and caused many white Americans to leave the cities and begin their lives in the suburbs. These family oriented neighborhoods had identical houses and portrayed the ideal American family. This caused the minorities to be left in the cities. Since they were unable to pay the heavy city taxes, the minorities had even less money and decreased the size of the middle class. A rise in advertisements and products occurred in the 50’s, and everyone was being encouraged to own the same commodities as their neighbors. Consumerism recommended conformity and set a standard for ‘proper’ American living. Similar to consumerism in the 1920’s, the 1950’s took on the stance that one’s success was based on how much one was able to afford. Furthermore, consumerism skyrocketed. Many companies realized that most people only needed one of their product, hence the creation of planned obsolescence. Planned obsolescence was where products would be made to last a certain amount of time before they purposely broke. This would cause a constant demand for products and ensured that companies would always have customers. In addition, society adapted the idea of ‘buy now, pay later.’ This was the precursor to the credit card, as certain stores began to offer credit to customers. This allowed them to spend as much as they wanted without worrying about the amount, as they could pay it all back once they had the money. All progress on gender equality was obsolete in the 50’s. Women were encouraged to return to the household and focus on taking care of the family while the men brought home the bacon. Entertainment such as television shows and movies such as Leave it to Beaver, portrayed what the typical American family was said to be like. The election of Dwight Eisenhower was also a large event that took place at the time. After the Cold War and events of McCarthyism, much of America was tried of both the Democratic Party and President Truman. The change they wanted to see was with Eisenhower. Eisenhower and his running mate, Richard Nixon, initially held majority of votes in the beginning of his campaign. However word got out that Nixon was accepting bribes to unfairly further their campaign. After Nixon personally addressed and denied the issue over live television, Eisenhower’s reputation was saved and he continued on to win the election. In general, the 50’s was a time where America had a great facade. Although the country was presenting itself as being well put together and exceptionally ‘nice,’ the truth was that the Cold War was taking its toll on America. Fear consumed the era.
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Honors Essay 12 - The 1960's and Vietnam
President Dwight D. Eisenhower began the construction of the National Interstate System after the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 was passed. He was inspired to do so by the success of the German Autobahn and his arduous experience attempting to cross the country on the Lincoln Highway. Based on this journey where he averaged a mere 6 mph for the entire trip, he saw a clear necessity for fast and efficient transportation throughout the United States. The German Autobahn had already been worldly renowned for its usefulness when it came to the transferring of supplies to German troops across the country. Furthermore, Eisenhower thought that the creation of a similar system in America was a military necessity for national defense. This National Interstate System proved to have many benefits. The most obvious was that Americans now had a much easier, faster, and more accessible way to get around. Families were able to move out of heavily populated cities and into the suburbs because commuting to work became easier. Rather than having to enter the city when you needed something, new shopping centers were built directly off the freeways. These proved to be immensely more convenient for people, and led to the creation of big department stores which provided all necessities under one roof. Although society was modernizing, this new interstate system also had some downfalls. People began to completely rely on cars and it became very uncommon to see people walking to and from places. Traffic problems became much more apparent, and accidents became very common. The sheer number of cars on the road produced negative environmental effects; pollution worsened and many health issues stemmed from this. Communities began to be separated from each other because everyone spent so much time in their cars and found significantly less opportunities for socialization. The change in population in suburban areas caused the downfall of many cities. Since the middle and wealth class citizens had all moved out from the cities, it was only the working class left there. These people were unable to pay the increased city taxes, furthermore the economies of many previously booming places began to plummet. Lastly, any cities that weren’t near the freeway that was built saw such a rapid decrease in interest that they became ghost towns.
Before Dwight Eisenhower was elected into office and before the Vietnam War, the French’s influence over Indo-China was very strong. It had been so since WWII and France’s original occupation of the land. At the time, Vietnam was referred to as the French-Indochina colony because France was attempting to colonize the country. However in opposition of the French, a nationalist movement was created in the North by Ho Chi Minh. As he rose to power, Ho Chi Minh approached U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in efforts of gaining American support in the independance and nationalization of Vietnam. However, Wilson denied the request because he knew that France was anti-communist. Because of this, Ho Chi Minh requested help from the Soviet Union and China, ultimately causing the Vietnamese Nationalist Party to become communist. With this support the French were driven out of Vietnam. This event catalyzed the U.S.’s entrance into the war, as it caused Eisenhower to send American troops into Vietnam and to begin supporting the French in the South. The main motivation behind Eisenhower’s actions were to avoid another country (Southern Vietnam) from going communist, and furthering the “domino theory”. This theory outlined the possibility that each country that turned red would cause another to do so, eventually spreading communism to the entire world. Even though the war in Vietnam was a civil war, it became a part of the Cold War because of Soviet and U.S. involvement. On January 17th, 1961 President Eisenhower gave his Farewell Address to America on live television. It was here that he spoke of the military industrial complex within America, and it’s dangers. Eisenhower was baffled by the profits of industries from war, as this connection did not exist when he assumed his role as President. He feared that the Pentagon’s large scale industrial suppliers would affect or influence America’s foreign policy, and that this complex would be a threat to society. The amount of power that industries held over the economy, society, and politics, was very threatening to the country. In addition, if America continued to militarize and weaponize then other countries would see the U.S. as a threat. Not only could this ruin foreign relations, but it could put America in an unwanted dangerous situation. These wise words from President Eisenhower continue to be relevant today, as America continues to spent hundreds of billions of dollars on national defense. It’s a mystery what affects that amount of money has on America’s politics. During his presidency, Eisenhower preferred “quiet” interventions rather than “loud” interventions. This was influenced by his experiences as a soldier in WWII. Rather than acting rashly, Eisenhower preferred to deliberately think through situations in order to save money and American lives. Needless deaths and outright war was unfavored, and Eisenhower favored giving the American people power.
The United States Presidential Election of 1960 brought along John Fitzgerald Kennedy (JFK) and his administration. The election between JFK and Richard Nixon had played out as one of the more interesting races, as their use of the televised debates paved the way for modern elections. These debates held before the election were seen to be one the main reasons why JFK was more popular than Nixon. Kennedy was a more presentable character and possessed a certain ability to capture those who watched to his speeches. Kennedy utilized these skills and used the televised debates as a way for majority of the American public to see him for who he was. During the debates both Kennedy and Nixon were very polite to each other. This can be seen as the effects of the preceding 50’s which was known for its “niceness.” Unlike televised debates nowadays, controversial issues and topics were not discussed between JFK and Nixon, and attacking each other’s personal lives was unheard of. This can be seen as a result of news sponsorship and the free publicity that was being given to them which they didn’t want to ruin. These debates caused Kennedy to gain much praise, as he appeared to be the more prepared and authentic candidate on air. Nixon on the other hand couldn’t help but profusely sweat and nervously stumble over words, despite his sound arguments and lengthy political experience. For these reasons, those who watched the debates on the television were seen to vote for Kennedy, while those who listened to them over the radio, interestingly sided with the arguments of Nixon. Because of these debates, the television soon began to be widely incorporated into politics, and news program viewership increased significantly. Voters felt better informed from these debates, and news was able to spread throughout the country much easier. JFK proceeded to be elected as the second youngest, and first catholic president. With the country under his administration, the “Camelot Era” began. Referring to the musical Camelot, Kennedy and his family became widely admired. Their poise and grace was worshiped, and they grew to be not only politicians but celebrities.
Kennedy had to deal with many foreign altercations during his presidency, especially because he was elected during the Cold War. On August 13th 1961, the Berlin wall was built. Its quick construction was due to the increased amount of East Germans fleeing to the democratic Western territories. On June 26th of 1963, President Kennedy made his most notorious speech at the Berlin wall where he famously said “Ich bin ein Berliner,” which means “I am a Berliner.” His words proved to be very powerful and uplifting, giving all of those living in West Berlin a bit of optimism. The Cuban Missile Crisis also took place during Kennedy’s presidency in 1962. America had learned that Cuba had nuclear missiles aimed at the United States, and that Cuba was receiving its supplies from the communist Soviet Union. In addition, news broke out that America had missiles in Turkey that were aimed at the Soviet Union. Kennedy proceeded to make a speech that said that America was looking for peace and an end to the situation, however also mentioned the fact that any attack on America from either the Soviet Union or Cuba would be seen as an act of war, and the U.S. wouldn’t hesitate with a response. Khrushchev however, the successor of Joseph Stalin, viewed Kennedy as a pushover and continuously bullied him. Both Kennedy and Khrushchev met in Berlin to negotiate the situation, and decided that the Soviet Union would disarm in Cuba if America agreed not to invade Cuba. Another part of the deal which wasn’t made publicly was that the U.S. would have to also disarm its missiles in Turkey. From all of this tension, the Cuban Missile Crisis nearly led to a full fledged nuclear war between the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1961 the event known as The Bay of Pigs took place. Kennedy was blamed for this event because it occurred during his presidency, however it was originally approved by President Eisenhower. This mission involved CIA trained rebels invading Cuba in efforts of assassinating the Cuban communist leader, Fidel Castro. The hope was that Cuba’s air defenses would be taken out by an American air force, meanwhile American troops would storm Castro’s ground forces. In actuality the airstrike failed while the American troops on the ground continued unknowingly. Castro had been well informed of the attack, and took many American POW’s. This invasion was seen as an overall failure, and very embarrassing for Kennedy when he had to travel to Cuba to negotiate the release of American troops. In 1965, the Unites States became involved in Vietnam. Although Kennedy only followed the actions of his predecessor Eisenhower by sending in more military advisors and financial aid to South Vietnam, he played a role in America’s early involvement in the war. Kennedy was also known to come up with the idea of “flexible response.” This essentially upped military spending in the name of national defense so that the U.S. would have defense options other than nuclear weapons. Overall Kennedy took on a large position when he was elected. Eisenhower had been a renowned war hero who bravely led America through WWII and the Korean War, while Kennedy lacked such experience. Nevertheless, Kennedy took a tough stance against communism and walked the United States through of a very dangerous time.
On November 22nd, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by former U.S. Marine, Lee Harvey Oswald. Many conspiracy theories emerged from this event because Oswald claimed he was too much of “patsy” to have committed the crime, and because Oswald was killed two days after the assassination by Jack Ruby. Because of this there was no court hearing and many believe that important information died with Oswald. JFK’s assassination came as a shock, as he was one of America’s most charismatic and culturally influential leaders. Although the shooting wasn’t caught on television, it was captured by a citizen bystander named Abraham Zapruder. Of the four bullets that were fired at Kennedy, three were identified as Oswald’s and entered Kennedy’s skull. The origins of the fourth bullet remain unknown. The Warren Commission later declared that Oswald acted alone, however other people have been found to also have motives against the President. Some believe that Oswald and Ruby were in the assassination together, however Ruby killed Oswald to keep him quiet about it. Others believe that Oswald was indeed a “patsy” and was taken advantage of by Ruby. In fact, almost 80% of Americans believe that the Warren Commission isn’t correct, and there was a cover-up. Some do believe that Oswald planned and carried out this plan alone, however it’s been theorized that it was because Kennedy had previously removed him for the military. More recently, an investigation has revealed that the assassination most likely occurred in accordance to a conspiracy theory. Personally I do not believe that Oswald acted alone. Either he was put up to it, or he and a group of people had an agenda against the President. Lyndon Baines Johnson, Kennedy’s vice president, stepped up as Kennedy’s successor.
Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) was seen to escalate America’s involvement in the Vietnam war. This was done through the use of propaganda and the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. In response to North Vietnamese attacks on American ships in the Gulf of Tonkin and specifically the firing of the USS Maddox, a resolution was made. This resolution allowed the U.S. military to support any Southeast Asian countries which were threatened by communism. These events were spinned by yellow journalism in America and caused the public to think the North Vietnamese were attacking innocent American ships, similar to the situation with the Lusitania before WWI. In reality, the USS Maddox had been carrying secret arms to South Vietnam. Regardless, LBJ used this somewhat false perception of the North Vietnamese and the resolution to justify the increase of American involvement in the war. This public fear also contributed to Congress’ passing of the Tonkin Resolution, as they believed LBJ was making the right decisions when it came to war against communism. Open warfare eventually occurred between North Vietnam and the U.S., causing Americans to take two different sides regarding the situation. These two sides were known as the doves and the hawks. The hawks firmly believed in aggressive military power and foreign policy, while the doves looked for peaceful methods of reconciliation. Within the United States there was an ongoing debate between the two and essentially split the country into anti-war and pro-war groups. During the Vietnam war, the counter culture movement occurred. This movement essentially called for Americans to overlook “mainstream” society, and adapt a new type of culture. The most notable counterculture group came to be known as the Hippies. These Hippies emerged from the hawks vs. doves debates, as many of the baby boomers saw the war as a pointless effort that had taken many lives unnecessarily. These individuals opposed the war, advocated for peace, and started the counter culture movements to express their beliefs. On May 4th, 1970, the Kent State University shootings occurred. The Ohio National Guard had shot and killed four unarmed protesters, and wounded nine others; all of which were students. These protestors had been taking part in an anti-war demonstration. After refusing to leave the demonstration after being ordered to by the national guard, some officers opened fire to the crowd. Eventually, most of America had lost faith in the war. The Tet offensive occurred during a two-day cease fire on account of the Lunar New Year, agreed upon by both North Vietnam and the U.S. troops in South Vietnam. However, North Vietnamese soldiers organized an attack on the south, killing many in a very short amount of time. At first the South Vietnamese forces were taken by surprise, however quickly retaliated and caused a similar amount of casualties on the Northerners. Even though the attack wasn’t considered very successful, it was overall very discouraging in the eyes of Americans. This was because the Cold War had allocated an enormous amount of resources and manpower towards abolishing communism, however this event proved that the communists were just as capable of getting past our defenses. The Tet Offensive put a dent in America’s exceptionalism and caused the U.S. to realize that it wasn’t winning the war.
Many events unfolded in 1968. One of the most important was the Presidential Election between the two democratic candidates, Eugene McCarthy and LBJ, who was attempting to win reelection. McCarthy was campaigning on the promise to end the war in Vietnam and bring home all American soldiers. This caused many members of the younger generation and the counter culture movement to give their support to McCarthy. The New Hampshire Upset occurred when McCarthy gained 42% of votes in the New Hampshire primaries. This caused LBJ to withdraw his presidential candidacy, as overall we wasn’t performing very well and it was clear that he lacked the needed support. LBJ did however decide that he would enter his vice-president, Hubert Humphrey, in as his replacement. At the same time, Robert Kennedy, JFK’s younger brother, along with McCarthy and Humphrey, was attempting to be nominated as the democratic candidate for the election. He seemed to be gaining the advantage in the race, when he was unfortunately assassinated on June 5th, 1968. This event occurred only a day after Kennedy had given a speech to his voters, and began what the media deemed “the Kennedy curse”. Nevertheless, The Democratic National Convention was held to nominate the democratic candidate for the upcoming election. With Kennedy out of the race, Hubert Humphrey was nominated to run against Richard Nixon. During the convention a police riot took place outside and was aired on live television. Protesters believed that Humphrey had “sneaked” into the election by imitating President Johnson’s ideology. A young boy was seen to take down an American flag, causing a group of policemen to break through the crown and beat the boy. Protesters attacked policemen and expanded the protest to the streets in an effort to involve the entire city. Such an immense amount of tear gas was used that it was able to reach Humphrey who was taking a shower in his hotel room. Protesters continued to taunt policemen with chants while police retaliated with mace. The entire standoff was televised for seventeen minutes and shocked its viewers. Following this chaos, Nixon stepped up and claimed that he had a secret plan that would end the war in Vietnam and bring back all of America’s soldiers. This caused him to win the election in 1968 since the events that unfolded at the Democratic Convention made Humphrey out as an unfavorable candidate. Unfortunately Nixon never followed through with these promises and continued to let 25,000 more soldiers die while racking up a large bill for the U.S.
Between the 1950’s and the 1970’s was an era of change within America. One of the largest attributes of this era was the African American Civil Rights Movement. This movement contained many important milestones, and the Brown vs. the Board of Education was one of them. This supreme court case regarded the segregation of public schools and ultimately declared that segregation was unequal and unconstitutional. This case unanimously overruled the Plessy Ferguson Case, which stated that segregation was the right thing to do, as that case technically violated the 14th amendment. As a result of this supreme court case, another important milestone occurred: the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School (LRCHS). In efforts of implementing the changes brought along by the Brown vs. the Board of Education case, the Board of LRCHS selected nine academically inclined, African American students to attend their school. This would be the first school where black and white students would engage in learning side-by-side. Unfortunately, there were many people who disagreed with this decision. When the nine students attempted to enter LRCHS they were met by over 1,000 protesters and denied entrance into the building. A white segregational mob yelled at, harassed, and attempted to hurt the students, denying them entrance even though they were escorted by police officers. This caused the matter to come to the attention of President Eisenhower. The next day, the 101st Airborne Division of the US Army was ordered to escort the students into the school. Despite this, the students continued to be treated with disrespect. Another important event that occurred was Rosa Parks’ refusal to move on a bus. After sitting in the colored section, Rosa Parks was asked to move for a white personal since the white section had filled up. At the time this was common etiquette and was a well-known standard. However, Rosa Park refused to move when a white person requested that she moved. This caused her to be incarcerated. This stunt was premeditated by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in order to take a stance against segregation. Rosa had been chosen for this based on her docile behavior and clean background in order to gain the most media, public awareness, and sympathy on behalf of the African Americans. This sparked a 381 day event known as the Montgomery Bus Boycott which protested against bus segregation. This boycott proved to be very successful, as the bus system suffered immensely and caused the desegregation of buses. Lunch counter sit-ins also emerged as a common peaceful protest of the time, where African American would sit at a white-reserved lunch counter and request to be served. The original lunch counter sit-in involved five African Americans who dealt with violence from other customers, however never acted upon it. These peaceful protests caused many lunch counters to desegregate in order to keep business. The Freedom Riders sparked another form of non-violent protests. The first Freedom Ride occurred on May 4th, 1961 when a group of seven white and black civil rights activists took public buses from Washington, DC to some of the extremely segregated areas of the South. This was in efforts of challenging the Supreme Court ruling that deemed the segregation of interstate buses to be unconstitutional. When the bus stopped for breaks white segregationists stormed the vehicle and proceeded to brutally attack the activists. The Freedom Riders were eventually evacuated as The Congress of Racial Equality wanted to end the Freedom Ride instead of letting it finish in more violence. Two riders courageously continued their journey and inspired many to participate in other freedom rides. Overall, the African American Civil Rights Movement had two dominant leaders: Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X. King believed in non-violent protests, peaceful marches, civil disobedience and moving speeches to gain a foothold in America’s dominant white society. Malcolm X on the other hand was willing to go to any lengths for racial equality; the possibility of violence never fazed his decisions. This ideology sparked the creation of the ‘Black Panthers’, a group of black individuals who violently dealt with the problems of segregation. Overall, King was seen to make a larger impact of the African American Civil Rights Movement, as his death played a large role in incorporation civil rights into legislation.
Mexican Americans were also seen to lead a civil rights movement between the 50’s and the 70’s. However unlike the African Americans, the Mexican Americans hadn’t had rights taken away from them. Instead they were fighting for their rights that weren’t being recognized. Since many of the Mexican Americans living in America were a part of the agriculture business, the majority of the movement occurred in California and near Mexico’s border. The American G.I. Forum (AGIF), which was created in 1958, is an organization that focuses on Hispanic war veterans and their rights. It was originally created for Mexican vets who weren’t allowed into other veteran clubs. It focused on the recognition of veteran rights, and their right to educations. Felix Longoria, a Mexican soldier who lost his life in WWII and was a purple heart recipient, became an important figure in the Mexican American civil rights movement. Longoria’s body hadn’t been returned from war to his family for over four years. When it finally was, his family was refused a burial service because of his ethnicity. The AGIF fought for Longoria’s family, and the situation eventually called for the president’s attention. The president allowed Longoria to be buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Ignacio Lopez also played a key role in the Mexican American civil rights movement, as he created the Unity League of California. This league promoted Mexican representation in American politics which had the interests of Hispanics in mind, and the integrations of California public schools. The United Farm Workers Union began in the early 60’s by Cesar Chavez. This union had been a merge between the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee and the National Farm Workers Association. Similar to the methods of MLK jr., Chavez practiced nonviolent protests and civil disobedience. One of his signature methods of gaining awareness: hunger strikes. Chavez was an avid civil rights activist who devoted his life to the equality of Hispanics in America.
At the time, Native American’s were also leading a civil rights movement, however they were looking for their right to once again own land in America and for their culture to be recognized. The American Indian Movement (AIM) began in 1968 as an effort to gain public awareness surrounding the inequality Native Americans were faced with, such as racism and police harassment. However, it shifted from publicity to actual reform and became an organization that fought for equality. The Indian Termination Program was a U.S. Policy that attempted to integrate Native Americans into American society and abolish the Indian Reserve system. This would essentially end the relationship between the federal government and Native Americans as they would now adopt the same rights as normal citizens. The Native Americans refused to accept these terms because they felt as though the little culture and land they still possessed was being taken from them. For these reasons, Reagan eventually issued a policy in 1983 that abandoned the termination policy. AIM also worked to abolish the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), an organization run by the US Government when which worked to give American Indians a voice. Although it seems as though the two organizations are similar, AIM saw that despite the BIA’s mission statement, they didn’t have a single Native American working there. This seemed contradictory and illegitimate. It was difficult for Americans to recognize the civil rights movement of the Native Americans based on the U.S.’s history of broken treaties and genocide against their people. Dennis Banks, one of the founders of AIM, was followed by his fellow co-founder Russell Means, who orchestrated the Wounded Knee Incident and the “Trail of Broken Treaties.” The Trail of Broken Treaties was a caravan between American Indian activist groups that attempted to publicize the mistreatment of the First Nations and the negative repercussions of colonization. The caravan proved to be effective since AIM and the government was able to arrive at a compromise. As a result of the Trail of Broken Treaties, the an event known as the Wounded Knee Incident occurred. Tensions had increased between American citizens and the Native American activists. At one point one of the groups of activists on the caravan had gotten too wound up, and took hostages. The FBI was forced to intervene after two American Indians had been killed.
Another social change movement that occurred in the 60’s was the Women’s Rights Movement. Although it had been seen before, the movement was essentially inactive during the 40’s and the 50’s. Women began to call for equality between men and women. Previously women had been seen attempting to take part in other civil rights movements, however were pushed away purely because of their gender. The motivation for the movement stemmed from the oppression women felt from gender roles. Especially during the 50’s, women were expected to simply stay at home all day, tend the children, cook for the family, and serve their husbands. Many women felt as though they were being treated as items and put at an unfair disadvantage compared to men. The The Feminine Mystique, published in 1968, became a popular book at the time. Written by Betty Friedan, an American feminist, activist, and writer, the book talked about the feelings felt by women who were strictly left to be housewives. She referred to this and the ‘problem with no name’ and found that many women experienced it. Friedan had originally had a difficult time finding a company to publish her book since many people didn’t want to be associated with such a topic. Similarly, Gloria Steinem became well known for her magazine, Ms. Magazine, which catered to a female audience and spoke of feminist issues. It was created Steinem’s realization that there were no magazines on the market that were written by women, for women. The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) had been created in the 20’s around the time the 19th amendment was ratified. It was designed to give rights, that were equal to those of men, to women, however failed to do so. Although Congress had passed it, it was never ratified due to a failure in audience when it came to state legislature. The failure of this amendment can be seen as the work of male and female conservatives such as Phyllis Schlafly, who opposed the feminist movement. Many women who opposed the ERA did so because they feared the safety and wellbeing of their family. For example, the amendment would have allowed women to be drafted into wars. Schlafly also took part in giving feminism the negative connotation it carries today, as she coined those within the movement as ‘man-haters’. This movement continues to be seen today based on the fact that women continue to be put at an unfair advantage when compared to men.
During the same era of social change the Gay Rights Movement was seen to emerge. This movement fought for the recognition of their problems, and direct action against discrimination. The 1960’s had been a time of extreme homophobia, causing many members of the LGBT community to retaliate. Organizations and protest strategies began to be formed to do so. The Stonewall Riots were a streak of violent demonstrations by the LGBT community against the police. These police had raided the Stonewall Inn, located in New York City’s Greenwich Village. The Stonewall Inn was one of many underground bars where gay people were encouraged to congregate. However, the police were known to raid such bars due to the prejudice against gay people at the time. Homosexuality was viewed as a mental illness, and police were known to attempt to cure those infected by it through the use of electric shock therapy. The Stonewall Riots are seen as the epitome of the gay liberation movement and the fight for equality in the gay community. Harvey Milk is known as the first gay politician who came out publicly. Unfortunately he was assassinated by another politician, Dan White. White was able to escape a murder sentence on account of what is known as ‘The Twinkie Excuse’. Until more recently the United States Military prohibited displaying homosexual behavior within the armed forces for reasons of order, morale, unit cohesion, and discipline. This policy was known as ‘Don’t ask, don’t tell’. It was repealed in 2011 after it was established in 1993. Proposition 8 was repealed in 2013 in California which meant that the state would recognize more than just unions between men and women. Although debate continues to emerge from this, same-sex couples still can’t marry in many states. The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was passed by Clinton and states that marriage can only be between men and women, essentially outlawing gay marriage. The act gives states the ability to deny recognition of same-sex marriage by withholding federal marriage benefits, however was found unconstitutional in federal court. DOMA hadn’t prevented individual states from allowing gay marriage, however created constraints when it came to federal benefits. Gay discrimination continues to prevail today, as it is viewed by conservatives as against the values of religion and society. For these reasons, many laws are currently in place against anti-gay discrimination.
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower began the construction of the National Interstate System after the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 was passed. He was inspired to do so by the success of the German Autobahn and his arduous experience attempting to cross the country on the Lincoln Highway. Based on this journey where he averaged a mere 6 mph for the entire trip, he saw a clear necessity for fast and efficient transportation throughout the United States. The German Autobahn had already been worldly renowned for its usefulness when it came to the transferring of supplies to German troops across the country. Furthermore, Eisenhower thought that the creation of a similar system in America was a military necessity for national defense. This National Interstate System proved to have many benefits. The most obvious was that Americans now had a much easier, faster, and more accessible way to get around. Families were able to move out of heavily populated cities and into the suburbs because commuting to work became easier. Rather than having to enter the city when you needed something, new shopping centers were built directly off the freeways. These proved to be immensely more convenient for people, and led to the creation of big department stores which provided all necessities under one roof. Although society was modernizing, this new interstate system also had some downfalls. People began to completely rely on cars and it became very uncommon to see people walking to and from places. Traffic problems became much more apparent, and accidents became very common. The sheer number of cars on the road produced negative environmental effects; pollution worsened and many health issues stemmed from this. Communities began to be separated from each other because everyone spent so much time in their cars and found significantly less opportunities for socialization. The change in population in suburban areas caused the downfall of many cities. Since the middle and wealth class citizens had all moved out from the cities, it was only the working class left there. These people were unable to pay the increased city taxes, furthermore the economies of many previously booming places began to plummet. Lastly, any cities that weren’t near the freeway that was built saw such a rapid decrease in interest that they became ghost towns.
Before Dwight Eisenhower was elected into office and before the Vietnam War, the French’s influence over Indo-China was very strong. It had been so since WWII and France’s original occupation of the land. At the time, Vietnam was referred to as the French-Indochina colony because France was attempting to colonize the country. However in opposition of the French, a nationalist movement was created in the North by Ho Chi Minh. As he rose to power, Ho Chi Minh approached U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in efforts of gaining American support in the independance and nationalization of Vietnam. However, Wilson denied the request because he knew that France was anti-communist. Because of this, Ho Chi Minh requested help from the Soviet Union and China, ultimately causing the Vietnamese Nationalist Party to become communist. With this support the French were driven out of Vietnam. This event catalyzed the U.S.’s entrance into the war, as it caused Eisenhower to send American troops into Vietnam and to begin supporting the French in the South. The main motivation behind Eisenhower’s actions were to avoid another country (Southern Vietnam) from going communist, and furthering the “domino theory”. This theory outlined the possibility that each country that turned red would cause another to do so, eventually spreading communism to the entire world. Even though the war in Vietnam was a civil war, it became a part of the Cold War because of Soviet and U.S. involvement. On January 17th, 1961 President Eisenhower gave his Farewell Address to America on live television. It was here that he spoke of the military industrial complex within America, and it’s dangers. Eisenhower was baffled by the profits of industries from war, as this connection did not exist when he assumed his role as President. He feared that the Pentagon’s large scale industrial suppliers would affect or influence America’s foreign policy, and that this complex would be a threat to society. The amount of power that industries held over the economy, society, and politics, was very threatening to the country. In addition, if America continued to militarize and weaponize then other countries would see the U.S. as a threat. Not only could this ruin foreign relations, but it could put America in an unwanted dangerous situation. These wise words from President Eisenhower continue to be relevant today, as America continues to spent hundreds of billions of dollars on national defense. It’s a mystery what affects that amount of money has on America’s politics. During his presidency, Eisenhower preferred “quiet” interventions rather than “loud” interventions. This was influenced by his experiences as a soldier in WWII. Rather than acting rashly, Eisenhower preferred to deliberately think through situations in order to save money and American lives. Needless deaths and outright war was unfavored, and Eisenhower favored giving the American people power.
The United States Presidential Election of 1960 brought along John Fitzgerald Kennedy (JFK) and his administration. The election between JFK and Richard Nixon had played out as one of the more interesting races, as their use of the televised debates paved the way for modern elections. These debates held before the election were seen to be one the main reasons why JFK was more popular than Nixon. Kennedy was a more presentable character and possessed a certain ability to capture those who watched to his speeches. Kennedy utilized these skills and used the televised debates as a way for majority of the American public to see him for who he was. During the debates both Kennedy and Nixon were very polite to each other. This can be seen as the effects of the preceding 50’s which was known for its “niceness.” Unlike televised debates nowadays, controversial issues and topics were not discussed between JFK and Nixon, and attacking each other’s personal lives was unheard of. This can be seen as a result of news sponsorship and the free publicity that was being given to them which they didn’t want to ruin. These debates caused Kennedy to gain much praise, as he appeared to be the more prepared and authentic candidate on air. Nixon on the other hand couldn’t help but profusely sweat and nervously stumble over words, despite his sound arguments and lengthy political experience. For these reasons, those who watched the debates on the television were seen to vote for Kennedy, while those who listened to them over the radio, interestingly sided with the arguments of Nixon. Because of these debates, the television soon began to be widely incorporated into politics, and news program viewership increased significantly. Voters felt better informed from these debates, and news was able to spread throughout the country much easier. JFK proceeded to be elected as the second youngest, and first catholic president. With the country under his administration, the “Camelot Era” began. Referring to the musical Camelot, Kennedy and his family became widely admired. Their poise and grace was worshiped, and they grew to be not only politicians but celebrities.
Kennedy had to deal with many foreign altercations during his presidency, especially because he was elected during the Cold War. On August 13th 1961, the Berlin wall was built. Its quick construction was due to the increased amount of East Germans fleeing to the democratic Western territories. On June 26th of 1963, President Kennedy made his most notorious speech at the Berlin wall where he famously said “Ich bin ein Berliner,” which means “I am a Berliner.” His words proved to be very powerful and uplifting, giving all of those living in West Berlin a bit of optimism. The Cuban Missile Crisis also took place during Kennedy’s presidency in 1962. America had learned that Cuba had nuclear missiles aimed at the United States, and that Cuba was receiving its supplies from the communist Soviet Union. In addition, news broke out that America had missiles in Turkey that were aimed at the Soviet Union. Kennedy proceeded to make a speech that said that America was looking for peace and an end to the situation, however also mentioned the fact that any attack on America from either the Soviet Union or Cuba would be seen as an act of war, and the U.S. wouldn’t hesitate with a response. Khrushchev however, the successor of Joseph Stalin, viewed Kennedy as a pushover and continuously bullied him. Both Kennedy and Khrushchev met in Berlin to negotiate the situation, and decided that the Soviet Union would disarm in Cuba if America agreed not to invade Cuba. Another part of the deal which wasn’t made publicly was that the U.S. would have to also disarm its missiles in Turkey. From all of this tension, the Cuban Missile Crisis nearly led to a full fledged nuclear war between the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1961 the event known as The Bay of Pigs took place. Kennedy was blamed for this event because it occurred during his presidency, however it was originally approved by President Eisenhower. This mission involved CIA trained rebels invading Cuba in efforts of assassinating the Cuban communist leader, Fidel Castro. The hope was that Cuba’s air defenses would be taken out by an American air force, meanwhile American troops would storm Castro’s ground forces. In actuality the airstrike failed while the American troops on the ground continued unknowingly. Castro had been well informed of the attack, and took many American POW’s. This invasion was seen as an overall failure, and very embarrassing for Kennedy when he had to travel to Cuba to negotiate the release of American troops. In 1965, the Unites States became involved in Vietnam. Although Kennedy only followed the actions of his predecessor Eisenhower by sending in more military advisors and financial aid to South Vietnam, he played a role in America’s early involvement in the war. Kennedy was also known to come up with the idea of “flexible response.” This essentially upped military spending in the name of national defense so that the U.S. would have defense options other than nuclear weapons. Overall Kennedy took on a large position when he was elected. Eisenhower had been a renowned war hero who bravely led America through WWII and the Korean War, while Kennedy lacked such experience. Nevertheless, Kennedy took a tough stance against communism and walked the United States through of a very dangerous time.
On November 22nd, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by former U.S. Marine, Lee Harvey Oswald. Many conspiracy theories emerged from this event because Oswald claimed he was too much of “patsy” to have committed the crime, and because Oswald was killed two days after the assassination by Jack Ruby. Because of this there was no court hearing and many believe that important information died with Oswald. JFK’s assassination came as a shock, as he was one of America’s most charismatic and culturally influential leaders. Although the shooting wasn’t caught on television, it was captured by a citizen bystander named Abraham Zapruder. Of the four bullets that were fired at Kennedy, three were identified as Oswald’s and entered Kennedy’s skull. The origins of the fourth bullet remain unknown. The Warren Commission later declared that Oswald acted alone, however other people have been found to also have motives against the President. Some believe that Oswald and Ruby were in the assassination together, however Ruby killed Oswald to keep him quiet about it. Others believe that Oswald was indeed a “patsy” and was taken advantage of by Ruby. In fact, almost 80% of Americans believe that the Warren Commission isn’t correct, and there was a cover-up. Some do believe that Oswald planned and carried out this plan alone, however it’s been theorized that it was because Kennedy had previously removed him for the military. More recently, an investigation has revealed that the assassination most likely occurred in accordance to a conspiracy theory. Personally I do not believe that Oswald acted alone. Either he was put up to it, or he and a group of people had an agenda against the President. Lyndon Baines Johnson, Kennedy’s vice president, stepped up as Kennedy’s successor.
Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) was seen to escalate America’s involvement in the Vietnam war. This was done through the use of propaganda and the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. In response to North Vietnamese attacks on American ships in the Gulf of Tonkin and specifically the firing of the USS Maddox, a resolution was made. This resolution allowed the U.S. military to support any Southeast Asian countries which were threatened by communism. These events were spinned by yellow journalism in America and caused the public to think the North Vietnamese were attacking innocent American ships, similar to the situation with the Lusitania before WWI. In reality, the USS Maddox had been carrying secret arms to South Vietnam. Regardless, LBJ used this somewhat false perception of the North Vietnamese and the resolution to justify the increase of American involvement in the war. This public fear also contributed to Congress’ passing of the Tonkin Resolution, as they believed LBJ was making the right decisions when it came to war against communism. Open warfare eventually occurred between North Vietnam and the U.S., causing Americans to take two different sides regarding the situation. These two sides were known as the doves and the hawks. The hawks firmly believed in aggressive military power and foreign policy, while the doves looked for peaceful methods of reconciliation. Within the United States there was an ongoing debate between the two and essentially split the country into anti-war and pro-war groups. During the Vietnam war, the counter culture movement occurred. This movement essentially called for Americans to overlook “mainstream” society, and adapt a new type of culture. The most notable counterculture group came to be known as the Hippies. These Hippies emerged from the hawks vs. doves debates, as many of the baby boomers saw the war as a pointless effort that had taken many lives unnecessarily. These individuals opposed the war, advocated for peace, and started the counter culture movements to express their beliefs. On May 4th, 1970, the Kent State University shootings occurred. The Ohio National Guard had shot and killed four unarmed protesters, and wounded nine others; all of which were students. These protestors had been taking part in an anti-war demonstration. After refusing to leave the demonstration after being ordered to by the national guard, some officers opened fire to the crowd. Eventually, most of America had lost faith in the war. The Tet offensive occurred during a two-day cease fire on account of the Lunar New Year, agreed upon by both North Vietnam and the U.S. troops in South Vietnam. However, North Vietnamese soldiers organized an attack on the south, killing many in a very short amount of time. At first the South Vietnamese forces were taken by surprise, however quickly retaliated and caused a similar amount of casualties on the Northerners. Even though the attack wasn’t considered very successful, it was overall very discouraging in the eyes of Americans. This was because the Cold War had allocated an enormous amount of resources and manpower towards abolishing communism, however this event proved that the communists were just as capable of getting past our defenses. The Tet Offensive put a dent in America’s exceptionalism and caused the U.S. to realize that it wasn’t winning the war.
Many events unfolded in 1968. One of the most important was the Presidential Election between the two democratic candidates, Eugene McCarthy and LBJ, who was attempting to win reelection. McCarthy was campaigning on the promise to end the war in Vietnam and bring home all American soldiers. This caused many members of the younger generation and the counter culture movement to give their support to McCarthy. The New Hampshire Upset occurred when McCarthy gained 42% of votes in the New Hampshire primaries. This caused LBJ to withdraw his presidential candidacy, as overall we wasn’t performing very well and it was clear that he lacked the needed support. LBJ did however decide that he would enter his vice-president, Hubert Humphrey, in as his replacement. At the same time, Robert Kennedy, JFK’s younger brother, along with McCarthy and Humphrey, was attempting to be nominated as the democratic candidate for the election. He seemed to be gaining the advantage in the race, when he was unfortunately assassinated on June 5th, 1968. This event occurred only a day after Kennedy had given a speech to his voters, and began what the media deemed “the Kennedy curse”. Nevertheless, The Democratic National Convention was held to nominate the democratic candidate for the upcoming election. With Kennedy out of the race, Hubert Humphrey was nominated to run against Richard Nixon. During the convention a police riot took place outside and was aired on live television. Protesters believed that Humphrey had “sneaked” into the election by imitating President Johnson’s ideology. A young boy was seen to take down an American flag, causing a group of policemen to break through the crown and beat the boy. Protesters attacked policemen and expanded the protest to the streets in an effort to involve the entire city. Such an immense amount of tear gas was used that it was able to reach Humphrey who was taking a shower in his hotel room. Protesters continued to taunt policemen with chants while police retaliated with mace. The entire standoff was televised for seventeen minutes and shocked its viewers. Following this chaos, Nixon stepped up and claimed that he had a secret plan that would end the war in Vietnam and bring back all of America’s soldiers. This caused him to win the election in 1968 since the events that unfolded at the Democratic Convention made Humphrey out as an unfavorable candidate. Unfortunately Nixon never followed through with these promises and continued to let 25,000 more soldiers die while racking up a large bill for the U.S.
Between the 1950’s and the 1970’s was an era of change within America. One of the largest attributes of this era was the African American Civil Rights Movement. This movement contained many important milestones, and the Brown vs. the Board of Education was one of them. This supreme court case regarded the segregation of public schools and ultimately declared that segregation was unequal and unconstitutional. This case unanimously overruled the Plessy Ferguson Case, which stated that segregation was the right thing to do, as that case technically violated the 14th amendment. As a result of this supreme court case, another important milestone occurred: the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School (LRCHS). In efforts of implementing the changes brought along by the Brown vs. the Board of Education case, the Board of LRCHS selected nine academically inclined, African American students to attend their school. This would be the first school where black and white students would engage in learning side-by-side. Unfortunately, there were many people who disagreed with this decision. When the nine students attempted to enter LRCHS they were met by over 1,000 protesters and denied entrance into the building. A white segregational mob yelled at, harassed, and attempted to hurt the students, denying them entrance even though they were escorted by police officers. This caused the matter to come to the attention of President Eisenhower. The next day, the 101st Airborne Division of the US Army was ordered to escort the students into the school. Despite this, the students continued to be treated with disrespect. Another important event that occurred was Rosa Parks’ refusal to move on a bus. After sitting in the colored section, Rosa Parks was asked to move for a white personal since the white section had filled up. At the time this was common etiquette and was a well-known standard. However, Rosa Park refused to move when a white person requested that she moved. This caused her to be incarcerated. This stunt was premeditated by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in order to take a stance against segregation. Rosa had been chosen for this based on her docile behavior and clean background in order to gain the most media, public awareness, and sympathy on behalf of the African Americans. This sparked a 381 day event known as the Montgomery Bus Boycott which protested against bus segregation. This boycott proved to be very successful, as the bus system suffered immensely and caused the desegregation of buses. Lunch counter sit-ins also emerged as a common peaceful protest of the time, where African American would sit at a white-reserved lunch counter and request to be served. The original lunch counter sit-in involved five African Americans who dealt with violence from other customers, however never acted upon it. These peaceful protests caused many lunch counters to desegregate in order to keep business. The Freedom Riders sparked another form of non-violent protests. The first Freedom Ride occurred on May 4th, 1961 when a group of seven white and black civil rights activists took public buses from Washington, DC to some of the extremely segregated areas of the South. This was in efforts of challenging the Supreme Court ruling that deemed the segregation of interstate buses to be unconstitutional. When the bus stopped for breaks white segregationists stormed the vehicle and proceeded to brutally attack the activists. The Freedom Riders were eventually evacuated as The Congress of Racial Equality wanted to end the Freedom Ride instead of letting it finish in more violence. Two riders courageously continued their journey and inspired many to participate in other freedom rides. Overall, the African American Civil Rights Movement had two dominant leaders: Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X. King believed in non-violent protests, peaceful marches, civil disobedience and moving speeches to gain a foothold in America’s dominant white society. Malcolm X on the other hand was willing to go to any lengths for racial equality; the possibility of violence never fazed his decisions. This ideology sparked the creation of the ‘Black Panthers’, a group of black individuals who violently dealt with the problems of segregation. Overall, King was seen to make a larger impact of the African American Civil Rights Movement, as his death played a large role in incorporation civil rights into legislation.
Mexican Americans were also seen to lead a civil rights movement between the 50’s and the 70’s. However unlike the African Americans, the Mexican Americans hadn’t had rights taken away from them. Instead they were fighting for their rights that weren’t being recognized. Since many of the Mexican Americans living in America were a part of the agriculture business, the majority of the movement occurred in California and near Mexico’s border. The American G.I. Forum (AGIF), which was created in 1958, is an organization that focuses on Hispanic war veterans and their rights. It was originally created for Mexican vets who weren’t allowed into other veteran clubs. It focused on the recognition of veteran rights, and their right to educations. Felix Longoria, a Mexican soldier who lost his life in WWII and was a purple heart recipient, became an important figure in the Mexican American civil rights movement. Longoria’s body hadn’t been returned from war to his family for over four years. When it finally was, his family was refused a burial service because of his ethnicity. The AGIF fought for Longoria’s family, and the situation eventually called for the president’s attention. The president allowed Longoria to be buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Ignacio Lopez also played a key role in the Mexican American civil rights movement, as he created the Unity League of California. This league promoted Mexican representation in American politics which had the interests of Hispanics in mind, and the integrations of California public schools. The United Farm Workers Union began in the early 60’s by Cesar Chavez. This union had been a merge between the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee and the National Farm Workers Association. Similar to the methods of MLK jr., Chavez practiced nonviolent protests and civil disobedience. One of his signature methods of gaining awareness: hunger strikes. Chavez was an avid civil rights activist who devoted his life to the equality of Hispanics in America.
At the time, Native American’s were also leading a civil rights movement, however they were looking for their right to once again own land in America and for their culture to be recognized. The American Indian Movement (AIM) began in 1968 as an effort to gain public awareness surrounding the inequality Native Americans were faced with, such as racism and police harassment. However, it shifted from publicity to actual reform and became an organization that fought for equality. The Indian Termination Program was a U.S. Policy that attempted to integrate Native Americans into American society and abolish the Indian Reserve system. This would essentially end the relationship between the federal government and Native Americans as they would now adopt the same rights as normal citizens. The Native Americans refused to accept these terms because they felt as though the little culture and land they still possessed was being taken from them. For these reasons, Reagan eventually issued a policy in 1983 that abandoned the termination policy. AIM also worked to abolish the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), an organization run by the US Government when which worked to give American Indians a voice. Although it seems as though the two organizations are similar, AIM saw that despite the BIA’s mission statement, they didn’t have a single Native American working there. This seemed contradictory and illegitimate. It was difficult for Americans to recognize the civil rights movement of the Native Americans based on the U.S.’s history of broken treaties and genocide against their people. Dennis Banks, one of the founders of AIM, was followed by his fellow co-founder Russell Means, who orchestrated the Wounded Knee Incident and the “Trail of Broken Treaties.” The Trail of Broken Treaties was a caravan between American Indian activist groups that attempted to publicize the mistreatment of the First Nations and the negative repercussions of colonization. The caravan proved to be effective since AIM and the government was able to arrive at a compromise. As a result of the Trail of Broken Treaties, the an event known as the Wounded Knee Incident occurred. Tensions had increased between American citizens and the Native American activists. At one point one of the groups of activists on the caravan had gotten too wound up, and took hostages. The FBI was forced to intervene after two American Indians had been killed.
Another social change movement that occurred in the 60’s was the Women’s Rights Movement. Although it had been seen before, the movement was essentially inactive during the 40’s and the 50’s. Women began to call for equality between men and women. Previously women had been seen attempting to take part in other civil rights movements, however were pushed away purely because of their gender. The motivation for the movement stemmed from the oppression women felt from gender roles. Especially during the 50’s, women were expected to simply stay at home all day, tend the children, cook for the family, and serve their husbands. Many women felt as though they were being treated as items and put at an unfair disadvantage compared to men. The The Feminine Mystique, published in 1968, became a popular book at the time. Written by Betty Friedan, an American feminist, activist, and writer, the book talked about the feelings felt by women who were strictly left to be housewives. She referred to this and the ‘problem with no name’ and found that many women experienced it. Friedan had originally had a difficult time finding a company to publish her book since many people didn’t want to be associated with such a topic. Similarly, Gloria Steinem became well known for her magazine, Ms. Magazine, which catered to a female audience and spoke of feminist issues. It was created Steinem’s realization that there were no magazines on the market that were written by women, for women. The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) had been created in the 20’s around the time the 19th amendment was ratified. It was designed to give rights, that were equal to those of men, to women, however failed to do so. Although Congress had passed it, it was never ratified due to a failure in audience when it came to state legislature. The failure of this amendment can be seen as the work of male and female conservatives such as Phyllis Schlafly, who opposed the feminist movement. Many women who opposed the ERA did so because they feared the safety and wellbeing of their family. For example, the amendment would have allowed women to be drafted into wars. Schlafly also took part in giving feminism the negative connotation it carries today, as she coined those within the movement as ‘man-haters’. This movement continues to be seen today based on the fact that women continue to be put at an unfair advantage when compared to men.
During the same era of social change the Gay Rights Movement was seen to emerge. This movement fought for the recognition of their problems, and direct action against discrimination. The 1960’s had been a time of extreme homophobia, causing many members of the LGBT community to retaliate. Organizations and protest strategies began to be formed to do so. The Stonewall Riots were a streak of violent demonstrations by the LGBT community against the police. These police had raided the Stonewall Inn, located in New York City’s Greenwich Village. The Stonewall Inn was one of many underground bars where gay people were encouraged to congregate. However, the police were known to raid such bars due to the prejudice against gay people at the time. Homosexuality was viewed as a mental illness, and police were known to attempt to cure those infected by it through the use of electric shock therapy. The Stonewall Riots are seen as the epitome of the gay liberation movement and the fight for equality in the gay community. Harvey Milk is known as the first gay politician who came out publicly. Unfortunately he was assassinated by another politician, Dan White. White was able to escape a murder sentence on account of what is known as ‘The Twinkie Excuse’. Until more recently the United States Military prohibited displaying homosexual behavior within the armed forces for reasons of order, morale, unit cohesion, and discipline. This policy was known as ‘Don’t ask, don’t tell’. It was repealed in 2011 after it was established in 1993. Proposition 8 was repealed in 2013 in California which meant that the state would recognize more than just unions between men and women. Although debate continues to emerge from this, same-sex couples still can’t marry in many states. The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was passed by Clinton and states that marriage can only be between men and women, essentially outlawing gay marriage. The act gives states the ability to deny recognition of same-sex marriage by withholding federal marriage benefits, however was found unconstitutional in federal court. DOMA hadn’t prevented individual states from allowing gay marriage, however created constraints when it came to federal benefits. Gay discrimination continues to prevail today, as it is viewed by conservatives as against the values of religion and society. For these reasons, many laws are currently in place against anti-gay discrimination.
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Honors Essay 13 - The 1970's
During President Richard Nixon’s presidential campaign, he promoted himself by promising an end to the war in Vietnam. However in reality, once he was elected, Nixon did the opposite. He was seen to further escalate the war by deploying troops to invade Cambodia. This was known as the Cambodian Campaign. These efforts were done in hopes of clearing out the North Vietnamese and fighting the Viet Cong party. In the end these actions caused numerous protests across America, especially on college campuses. The American public felt as though Nixon had betrayed his voters, and that countless lives were being lost overseas for no reason. Some of these protests became very violent and caused multiple deaths. The Pentagon Papers acted as proof of the mess America had made out of the Vietnam War. This 7,000 page document was originally written for the secretary of defence, however it was leaked by Department of Defense (DOD) employee, Daniel Ellsberg. The release of these papers gave the press full access to America’s activities in Vietnam. The Pentagon Papers proved that the DOD had planned to engage in warfare with Vietnam ever since the Kennedy Administration, even though the public was told otherwise. This was undeniable proof that the government had been lying for years and that there had never been a plan to end the war unless America won. This event caused a decrease in war support from the public because they felt as though there was little justification for it. In the 1972 Presidential Election Americans were looking for a leader who would quickly end the war once and for all. Countless false promises had been made and thousands of men continued to die for a weak and almost impossible cause. Furthermore, both candidates, George McGovern and Richard Nixon, used this dissatisfaction with the war to get elected. McGovern earnestly campaigned on retracting U.S. involvement in the war, which gained him a lot of support. Similarly, Nixon realized that to appeal to the public he had to make an effort to find amends in Asia. Furthermore, Nixon began the Paris Peace Talks in France to open dialog between himself and the North Vietnamese. After he was elected, this series of negotiations established America’s interest in peace between the countries and an end to the war. Although both South and North Vietnam were hesitant to agree to the negotiations, they signed the Paris Peace Accord in 1973. This was seen to have been influenced by the Christmas Day Bombings where the U.S. continuously attacked North Vietnam, except for on Christmas, in order to help persuade them to agree to the negotiation set. These peace talks began the process of ending U.S. involvement in the war, however it wasn’t until Ford’s presidency that the war actually ended. In all, the Paris Peace Talks allowed Nixon to win reelection, and left South Vietnam to fight on its own.
When it came to foreign policy, President Nixon was considered very successful. This was partly due to his National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger. Kissinger developed a form of diplomacy known as ‘realpolitik’ which analyzed countries by the amount of power they held rather than their economic, social, or ideological system. This eliminated America’s need to attack every little communist nation, as Kissinger believed they weren’t worth our efforts if the nation held little power. Under Nixon’s administration the idea of ‘realpolitik’ created the ‘détente’ concept. Kissinger organized this détante policy with the Soviet Union, which ended up lessening the severe tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States. Overall the concepts of realpolitik and détante effectively relieved some of the stress surrounding the cold war, Nixon was even seen to travel to both Russia and China to rebuild the relationship between each country and the United States. In the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War the Unites States refused to acknowledge the People’s Republic of China as a country because of their communist ideology. However Nixon changed this. He recognized the country as a nation and opened trade relations between China and the U.S. In addition, Nixon met with Leonid Brezhnev in Moscow and created the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT). This treaty put a limit on the amount of mass-produced Anti-Ballistic Missiles that the U.S.S.R and U.S. could have, and worked to find peace agreements between the two nations. By meeting with government officials from both China and the Soviet Union, Nixon was able to drive a wedge between the two and weaken their relationship with each other. Nixon was known to pass along bits of information to both countries, which ultimately made them question their alliances with each other.
Nixon is a well known president due to the fact that he is the only one to have resigned from office. This decision was based on his involvement in the Watergate scandal and the call from many to have him impeached. In the midst of the 1973 Presidential Election, Nixon was worried that he had lost the support he needed to get reelected. This led to Nixon creating the Committee for the Reelection of the President (CRP), which was a team who worked to achieve reelection, no matter the costs. Members of this committee were assigned to wiretap the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office complex, and gain intel on the campaign of Nixon’s opponent. The CRP was able to bug the conference rooms and steal many important documents without being discovered. However when one camera stopped working Nixon reassigned the committee to break in once again and repair the problem. This time around, the intruders were caught by a night janitor. When authorities found out about the burglars they were able to trace their involvement with Nixon’s administration through their money, which was linked to an administration fundraising group. Nixon denied his involvement in the scandal and gave many testimonies which contradicted others, this made it even more evident that Nixon was withholding secrets. The Supreme Court demanded that Nixon hand over all audio-recorded meetings held, for further investigation. Although Nixon originally denied such requests for reasons of national security, he was forced to hand them over. These recordings caused Nixon to worsen his own situation because they proved him to be guilty and it was his idea to record his meetings in the first place. This scandal was an example of imperial presidency because Nixon arrogantly testified that the president should hold the power to do whatever he wants if it’s best for the country. This statement was extremely unconstitutional because it went against the three branches of government which the constitution calls for. For these reasons, the House of Representatives recommended that Nixon be impeached. However before Congress could take action on the situation, Nixon decided to resign from office. Nixon’s fear had come true, even the Republican Party was planning to vote against him in the impeachment trial.
Following the resignation of President Nixon, the vice-president, Gerald Ford, was automatically elected. After Spiro Agnew had resigned as Vice-President under Nixon’s administration, Ford took his place. Agnew had many criminal charges against him and his reputation had been tarnished by government corruption and conspiracy and it was Ford who was chosen as Agnew’s successor since Ford was the House Minority Leader. It was by decree of the 25th amendment that brought Ford forward as a president, without holding an election after Nixon’s resignation. Even though Ford was the first non-elected president in history, he was quickly forgotten and labeled ‘forgettable Ford’. This nickname was based off of his very short time in office (two years), and the lack of substantial changes under his administration. Ford’s greatest achievement during his administration was the Helsinki Accords where treaties were formed between Europe, Asia and the United States. These accords allowed the Soviet Union to continue their rule over the countries that had already fallen under the iron curtain, however gave the Unites States the right to recognize any country as a sovereign nation who chose to leave the Soviet Union. Although Ford attempted to get reelected, he faced many challenges in the process. Ford advocated for a decrease in government spending and an increase in taxes. These changes were meant to help the economy, however they did the opposite. Ford led America into a recession causing many voters to withdraw their support of his administration. In addition, Ford was seen as unprofessional by many because of his clumsy behavior. His constant tripping and falling made him look weak in the eyes of the public. Lastly, Ford’s decision to pardon Nixon of his crimes caused large amounts of controversy since it was pretty clear that Nixon was guilty. This culmination of events and policies made Gerald Ford the unfavored candidate in the 1976 election and caused Jimmy Carter to win the title of president.
By the election of 1976, Jimmy Carter held the upper hand. Majority of the American public was tired of the republican party, making Carter the favored candidate. This was because Nixon had created one of the worst scandals in America, and Ford failed to issue any repercussions. America was looking for a new era of presidential and governmental stability. Carter campaigned on the promise that he would never lie to American, and that he was a man of the people. He effectively took advantage of the distrust Americans felt towards the government by supporting himself as a trustworthy figure, even though he was a relatively unknown politician. Carter continued on to win the election, however by a narrow margin. Carter’s administration had to face many arduous challenges; one of the major events was the energy crisis. In the 1970’s the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) decided to limit oil exports in order to raise gas prices and gain profit. At the same, time the ongoing Iranian Revolution limited Iran’s oil exports, ultimately leaving America in an oil shortage. Gas prices shot up and soon oil was so scarce that there wasn’t enough for the amount of cars in America. Carter attempted to address the problem through the implementation of many laws and bills, however neither ever did much. Americans were forced to wait in tremendously long lines at gas stations and to only fill their tanks on certain days. Carter attempted to empathize Americans through the Malaise Speech. Carter intended to reassure the public with this speech by truthfully explaining the crisis and assuring them that he was on their side. However, many Americans perceived the speech as Carter giving up on the crisis, causing the public to become angry. This energy crisis can be seen as part of the reason why foreign cars have become so widely used in America. At the time, the Japanese had developed far superior gas-saving technologies compared to those of American car companies. Since the price of gasoline was so high, many Americans began to buy the sleeker and more fuel efficient cars from foreign companies.
Carter placed human rights as a priority when it came to foreign policy. His ideology somewhat conflicted with the idea of realpolitik and détante since Carter believed that even if a country was communist, it wasn’t an enemy as long as it’s people were being treated right. One example of this ideology was Carter’s creation of the Panama Canal Treaty. This treaty gave the rights of the Panama Canal back to the nation of Panama. Although many republicans did not agree with this, due to the country’s corruption and instability, Carter believed it was the right decision considering the canal was not technically America’s and because it opened communication with latin America. Carter was expected to continue the SALT I treaty which was created under Nixon’s administration, however continuously put off meetings with the Soviet Union due to their poor treatment of their citizens. After some time Carter did renew the treaty by creating the SALT II, which worked to reduce nuclear weaponry in both nations. Due to Carter’s ideology when it came to dealing with other nations, détante was seen to collapse. It had already began to falter under the manipulative administration of Nixon, however the true fall and abolition was seen during Carter’s presidency. During this time the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan on Christmas day. In response to this situation Carter boycotted the 1980 Olympics that were held in Moscow by withholding the participation of American athletes. This response was seen as controversial because Carter made a decision without thinking about the way it would affect others. Many athletes had been training for that opportunity their entire lives, and he technically violated the Olympic peace treaty held between participating nations. Many American felt as though Carter should have done something more substantial than just a boycott on the olympics.
Before Carter’s presidency, the establishment of Israel as an independant nation took place by relocating many Arabians off Egyptian land. This created a hatred towards Israel in the eyes of Egyptians since they had been driven out of their land by the strong Israeli military. To lessen these tensions, Carter invited Egypt’s President, Anwar El Sadat, and Israel's Prime Minister, Menachem Begin, to Camp David. Carter did so without telling each official of the others’ attendance, and forced them both to stay many weeks until a peace agreement was created between their nations. The agreements that were finally reached, known as the Camp David Accords, decided that the Sinai Peninsula would be returned to Egypt if Egypt recognized Israel as a sovereign nation, and allowed Israel to keep the the territory that had been acquired. These Accords essentially ensured that Israel would survive as a sovereign nation since they gave Israel the support needed to create a government and guarantee its safety. The Camp David Accords were seen as Carter’s greatest achievements while in office since the peace he created between Israel and Egypt has lasted to this day.
Iranian students charged the United States Embassy in Iran on November 4th, 1979 in protest. This was the beginning of the Iran hostage crisis. The protest was against the U.S. president’s decision to allow the Shah into the United States to receive medical care for his cancer. The Shah was the leader of Iran who was appointed by the U.S. after a coup was staged against Prime Minister Mossadegh. The U.S. felt such actions were necessary after Mossadegh wanted to nationalize Iran’s oil. Thusly, the U.S. orchestrated a coup in efforts of taking over Iran’s government and oil industry for America’s benefit. The coup was successful, the pro-western Shah became dictator, and he ruled for 26 years. Unfortunately he led Iran into an economic recession, limited human rights for the Iranian people, and treated the public brutality through the use of his secret, CIA trained, police force known as the Savak. Iranians became very fed up with America’s involvement and the government in their country; this eventually led them to create a rebellion against the Shah, led by Ayatollah Khomeini. The Shah fled the country to stay safe, however soon needed medical treatment after he was diagnosed with cancer; hence the protests. President Carter had felt as though it was necessary to allow the Shah into the U.S. for humanitarian reasons, however this further enraged the Iranians. Iranian students overran America’s embassy in Tehran at the same time the Shah arrived in the U.S. The students took 66 American hostages from the embassy and called for the Shah to be returned to Iran in order to face trials for his crimes.
The hostage crisis consumed American television, news, media, and peace of mind. Carter had attempted to negotiate the release of the hostages, however it was clear that he wasn’t going to get far with such methods. The American public was so vested in the crisis that they called for military involvement; this was the creation of Operation Eagle Claw. This mission was intended to save the remaining hostages in Tehran, which involved the use of 8 helicopters and a CIA SWAT team. In the process of the operation only five helicopters were left operational. One had developed problems with the hydraulic mechanisms, another had a cracked rotor blade, and the last had got caught in a storm of very fine sand. It had been previously decided that if there were less than six functional helicopters on the scene of the operation that the plan would be immediately aborted. Carter granted the request to abort the mission, leaving it unsuccessful. To make matters worse, one of the helicopters crashed into another aircraft which contained jet fuel and soldiers. The fire caused from this accident wrecked both aircrafts and killed eight men. Overall Operation Eagle Claw was a horrible failure and left a dent in Carter’s reputation. When reelections came around, Carter’s opponent, Ronald Reagan, used this failed attempt at saving the hostages to his advantage. Reagan promoted himself as an invincible man who could save anyone who needed it. This led the public to favor Reagan and caused him to win the election. Despite Carter’s loss, he continued to work for the release of the hostages. Unfortunately the negotiations took such a long time that the hostages weren’t released until Reagan’s inauguration, leading the American public to believe Reagan had ended the crisis. In the eyes of America, the failure of Operation Eagle Claw was Carter’s fault, and Reagan’s administration was responsible for the end of the Iranian Hostage Crisis.
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During President Richard Nixon’s presidential campaign, he promoted himself by promising an end to the war in Vietnam. However in reality, once he was elected, Nixon did the opposite. He was seen to further escalate the war by deploying troops to invade Cambodia. This was known as the Cambodian Campaign. These efforts were done in hopes of clearing out the North Vietnamese and fighting the Viet Cong party. In the end these actions caused numerous protests across America, especially on college campuses. The American public felt as though Nixon had betrayed his voters, and that countless lives were being lost overseas for no reason. Some of these protests became very violent and caused multiple deaths. The Pentagon Papers acted as proof of the mess America had made out of the Vietnam War. This 7,000 page document was originally written for the secretary of defence, however it was leaked by Department of Defense (DOD) employee, Daniel Ellsberg. The release of these papers gave the press full access to America’s activities in Vietnam. The Pentagon Papers proved that the DOD had planned to engage in warfare with Vietnam ever since the Kennedy Administration, even though the public was told otherwise. This was undeniable proof that the government had been lying for years and that there had never been a plan to end the war unless America won. This event caused a decrease in war support from the public because they felt as though there was little justification for it. In the 1972 Presidential Election Americans were looking for a leader who would quickly end the war once and for all. Countless false promises had been made and thousands of men continued to die for a weak and almost impossible cause. Furthermore, both candidates, George McGovern and Richard Nixon, used this dissatisfaction with the war to get elected. McGovern earnestly campaigned on retracting U.S. involvement in the war, which gained him a lot of support. Similarly, Nixon realized that to appeal to the public he had to make an effort to find amends in Asia. Furthermore, Nixon began the Paris Peace Talks in France to open dialog between himself and the North Vietnamese. After he was elected, this series of negotiations established America’s interest in peace between the countries and an end to the war. Although both South and North Vietnam were hesitant to agree to the negotiations, they signed the Paris Peace Accord in 1973. This was seen to have been influenced by the Christmas Day Bombings where the U.S. continuously attacked North Vietnam, except for on Christmas, in order to help persuade them to agree to the negotiation set. These peace talks began the process of ending U.S. involvement in the war, however it wasn’t until Ford’s presidency that the war actually ended. In all, the Paris Peace Talks allowed Nixon to win reelection, and left South Vietnam to fight on its own.
When it came to foreign policy, President Nixon was considered very successful. This was partly due to his National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger. Kissinger developed a form of diplomacy known as ‘realpolitik’ which analyzed countries by the amount of power they held rather than their economic, social, or ideological system. This eliminated America’s need to attack every little communist nation, as Kissinger believed they weren’t worth our efforts if the nation held little power. Under Nixon’s administration the idea of ‘realpolitik’ created the ‘détente’ concept. Kissinger organized this détante policy with the Soviet Union, which ended up lessening the severe tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States. Overall the concepts of realpolitik and détante effectively relieved some of the stress surrounding the cold war, Nixon was even seen to travel to both Russia and China to rebuild the relationship between each country and the United States. In the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War the Unites States refused to acknowledge the People’s Republic of China as a country because of their communist ideology. However Nixon changed this. He recognized the country as a nation and opened trade relations between China and the U.S. In addition, Nixon met with Leonid Brezhnev in Moscow and created the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT). This treaty put a limit on the amount of mass-produced Anti-Ballistic Missiles that the U.S.S.R and U.S. could have, and worked to find peace agreements between the two nations. By meeting with government officials from both China and the Soviet Union, Nixon was able to drive a wedge between the two and weaken their relationship with each other. Nixon was known to pass along bits of information to both countries, which ultimately made them question their alliances with each other.
Nixon is a well known president due to the fact that he is the only one to have resigned from office. This decision was based on his involvement in the Watergate scandal and the call from many to have him impeached. In the midst of the 1973 Presidential Election, Nixon was worried that he had lost the support he needed to get reelected. This led to Nixon creating the Committee for the Reelection of the President (CRP), which was a team who worked to achieve reelection, no matter the costs. Members of this committee were assigned to wiretap the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office complex, and gain intel on the campaign of Nixon’s opponent. The CRP was able to bug the conference rooms and steal many important documents without being discovered. However when one camera stopped working Nixon reassigned the committee to break in once again and repair the problem. This time around, the intruders were caught by a night janitor. When authorities found out about the burglars they were able to trace their involvement with Nixon’s administration through their money, which was linked to an administration fundraising group. Nixon denied his involvement in the scandal and gave many testimonies which contradicted others, this made it even more evident that Nixon was withholding secrets. The Supreme Court demanded that Nixon hand over all audio-recorded meetings held, for further investigation. Although Nixon originally denied such requests for reasons of national security, he was forced to hand them over. These recordings caused Nixon to worsen his own situation because they proved him to be guilty and it was his idea to record his meetings in the first place. This scandal was an example of imperial presidency because Nixon arrogantly testified that the president should hold the power to do whatever he wants if it’s best for the country. This statement was extremely unconstitutional because it went against the three branches of government which the constitution calls for. For these reasons, the House of Representatives recommended that Nixon be impeached. However before Congress could take action on the situation, Nixon decided to resign from office. Nixon’s fear had come true, even the Republican Party was planning to vote against him in the impeachment trial.
Following the resignation of President Nixon, the vice-president, Gerald Ford, was automatically elected. After Spiro Agnew had resigned as Vice-President under Nixon’s administration, Ford took his place. Agnew had many criminal charges against him and his reputation had been tarnished by government corruption and conspiracy and it was Ford who was chosen as Agnew’s successor since Ford was the House Minority Leader. It was by decree of the 25th amendment that brought Ford forward as a president, without holding an election after Nixon’s resignation. Even though Ford was the first non-elected president in history, he was quickly forgotten and labeled ‘forgettable Ford’. This nickname was based off of his very short time in office (two years), and the lack of substantial changes under his administration. Ford’s greatest achievement during his administration was the Helsinki Accords where treaties were formed between Europe, Asia and the United States. These accords allowed the Soviet Union to continue their rule over the countries that had already fallen under the iron curtain, however gave the Unites States the right to recognize any country as a sovereign nation who chose to leave the Soviet Union. Although Ford attempted to get reelected, he faced many challenges in the process. Ford advocated for a decrease in government spending and an increase in taxes. These changes were meant to help the economy, however they did the opposite. Ford led America into a recession causing many voters to withdraw their support of his administration. In addition, Ford was seen as unprofessional by many because of his clumsy behavior. His constant tripping and falling made him look weak in the eyes of the public. Lastly, Ford’s decision to pardon Nixon of his crimes caused large amounts of controversy since it was pretty clear that Nixon was guilty. This culmination of events and policies made Gerald Ford the unfavored candidate in the 1976 election and caused Jimmy Carter to win the title of president.
By the election of 1976, Jimmy Carter held the upper hand. Majority of the American public was tired of the republican party, making Carter the favored candidate. This was because Nixon had created one of the worst scandals in America, and Ford failed to issue any repercussions. America was looking for a new era of presidential and governmental stability. Carter campaigned on the promise that he would never lie to American, and that he was a man of the people. He effectively took advantage of the distrust Americans felt towards the government by supporting himself as a trustworthy figure, even though he was a relatively unknown politician. Carter continued on to win the election, however by a narrow margin. Carter’s administration had to face many arduous challenges; one of the major events was the energy crisis. In the 1970’s the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) decided to limit oil exports in order to raise gas prices and gain profit. At the same, time the ongoing Iranian Revolution limited Iran’s oil exports, ultimately leaving America in an oil shortage. Gas prices shot up and soon oil was so scarce that there wasn’t enough for the amount of cars in America. Carter attempted to address the problem through the implementation of many laws and bills, however neither ever did much. Americans were forced to wait in tremendously long lines at gas stations and to only fill their tanks on certain days. Carter attempted to empathize Americans through the Malaise Speech. Carter intended to reassure the public with this speech by truthfully explaining the crisis and assuring them that he was on their side. However, many Americans perceived the speech as Carter giving up on the crisis, causing the public to become angry. This energy crisis can be seen as part of the reason why foreign cars have become so widely used in America. At the time, the Japanese had developed far superior gas-saving technologies compared to those of American car companies. Since the price of gasoline was so high, many Americans began to buy the sleeker and more fuel efficient cars from foreign companies.
Carter placed human rights as a priority when it came to foreign policy. His ideology somewhat conflicted with the idea of realpolitik and détante since Carter believed that even if a country was communist, it wasn’t an enemy as long as it’s people were being treated right. One example of this ideology was Carter’s creation of the Panama Canal Treaty. This treaty gave the rights of the Panama Canal back to the nation of Panama. Although many republicans did not agree with this, due to the country’s corruption and instability, Carter believed it was the right decision considering the canal was not technically America’s and because it opened communication with latin America. Carter was expected to continue the SALT I treaty which was created under Nixon’s administration, however continuously put off meetings with the Soviet Union due to their poor treatment of their citizens. After some time Carter did renew the treaty by creating the SALT II, which worked to reduce nuclear weaponry in both nations. Due to Carter’s ideology when it came to dealing with other nations, détante was seen to collapse. It had already began to falter under the manipulative administration of Nixon, however the true fall and abolition was seen during Carter’s presidency. During this time the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan on Christmas day. In response to this situation Carter boycotted the 1980 Olympics that were held in Moscow by withholding the participation of American athletes. This response was seen as controversial because Carter made a decision without thinking about the way it would affect others. Many athletes had been training for that opportunity their entire lives, and he technically violated the Olympic peace treaty held between participating nations. Many American felt as though Carter should have done something more substantial than just a boycott on the olympics.
Before Carter’s presidency, the establishment of Israel as an independant nation took place by relocating many Arabians off Egyptian land. This created a hatred towards Israel in the eyes of Egyptians since they had been driven out of their land by the strong Israeli military. To lessen these tensions, Carter invited Egypt’s President, Anwar El Sadat, and Israel's Prime Minister, Menachem Begin, to Camp David. Carter did so without telling each official of the others’ attendance, and forced them both to stay many weeks until a peace agreement was created between their nations. The agreements that were finally reached, known as the Camp David Accords, decided that the Sinai Peninsula would be returned to Egypt if Egypt recognized Israel as a sovereign nation, and allowed Israel to keep the the territory that had been acquired. These Accords essentially ensured that Israel would survive as a sovereign nation since they gave Israel the support needed to create a government and guarantee its safety. The Camp David Accords were seen as Carter’s greatest achievements while in office since the peace he created between Israel and Egypt has lasted to this day.
Iranian students charged the United States Embassy in Iran on November 4th, 1979 in protest. This was the beginning of the Iran hostage crisis. The protest was against the U.S. president’s decision to allow the Shah into the United States to receive medical care for his cancer. The Shah was the leader of Iran who was appointed by the U.S. after a coup was staged against Prime Minister Mossadegh. The U.S. felt such actions were necessary after Mossadegh wanted to nationalize Iran’s oil. Thusly, the U.S. orchestrated a coup in efforts of taking over Iran’s government and oil industry for America’s benefit. The coup was successful, the pro-western Shah became dictator, and he ruled for 26 years. Unfortunately he led Iran into an economic recession, limited human rights for the Iranian people, and treated the public brutality through the use of his secret, CIA trained, police force known as the Savak. Iranians became very fed up with America’s involvement and the government in their country; this eventually led them to create a rebellion against the Shah, led by Ayatollah Khomeini. The Shah fled the country to stay safe, however soon needed medical treatment after he was diagnosed with cancer; hence the protests. President Carter had felt as though it was necessary to allow the Shah into the U.S. for humanitarian reasons, however this further enraged the Iranians. Iranian students overran America’s embassy in Tehran at the same time the Shah arrived in the U.S. The students took 66 American hostages from the embassy and called for the Shah to be returned to Iran in order to face trials for his crimes.
The hostage crisis consumed American television, news, media, and peace of mind. Carter had attempted to negotiate the release of the hostages, however it was clear that he wasn’t going to get far with such methods. The American public was so vested in the crisis that they called for military involvement; this was the creation of Operation Eagle Claw. This mission was intended to save the remaining hostages in Tehran, which involved the use of 8 helicopters and a CIA SWAT team. In the process of the operation only five helicopters were left operational. One had developed problems with the hydraulic mechanisms, another had a cracked rotor blade, and the last had got caught in a storm of very fine sand. It had been previously decided that if there were less than six functional helicopters on the scene of the operation that the plan would be immediately aborted. Carter granted the request to abort the mission, leaving it unsuccessful. To make matters worse, one of the helicopters crashed into another aircraft which contained jet fuel and soldiers. The fire caused from this accident wrecked both aircrafts and killed eight men. Overall Operation Eagle Claw was a horrible failure and left a dent in Carter’s reputation. When reelections came around, Carter’s opponent, Ronald Reagan, used this failed attempt at saving the hostages to his advantage. Reagan promoted himself as an invincible man who could save anyone who needed it. This led the public to favor Reagan and caused him to win the election. Despite Carter’s loss, he continued to work for the release of the hostages. Unfortunately the negotiations took such a long time that the hostages weren’t released until Reagan’s inauguration, leading the American public to believe Reagan had ended the crisis. In the eyes of America, the failure of Operation Eagle Claw was Carter’s fault, and Reagan’s administration was responsible for the end of the Iranian Hostage Crisis.
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Honors Essay 14 - Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Clinton Part 1
The New Right was a group of social and fiscal conservatives who believed in a small government. They didn’t spend money on those who were undeserving, believed in deregulation of the government’s rule, and the old traditions of America. Their policies aligned with white superiority and the opposition of the Civil Rights movements of the 60’s and 70’s. In addition, these fundamentalists strongly disagreed with newly passed laws and acts such as the ban of school prayer, the teaching of evolution, affirmative action, court-ordered busing, abortions, and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). In the early 1960’s the Supreme Court banned school prayer in public schools based on its violation of the first amendment. The abolition of this long standing tradition was strongly opposed by the New Right, as it rid the school system of old tradition and good christian values. The New Right also disagreed with the teaching of evolution in classrooms rather than the theory of creationism. This topic was the subject of heavy debate during the 1980’s. Many teachers who dared to teached evolution in their classrooms were often fired for doing so. Fundamentalists believed that creationism should be the only theory taught since religion is one of America’s fundamental roots, and because its values don’t coincide with those of evolution. Affirmative Action was a concept that was heavily scrutinized by the New Right because it gave more job opportunities to people of color and women. This was done by requiring business owners to consider any minority applying to a job when looking for new employees. This was based on the superfluous amount of jobs given to white males with jobs while women and men of color struggled to find employment. The New Right opposed this act because it undermined white superiority and gave jobs to those who are less trained and qualified for certain jobs just because of their gender or race. This seemed to be backwards racism since businesses were now seen to hold grudges against caucasian males. In the 1950’s the Supreme Court declared the segregation of buses to be unconstitutional. It was during the 1980’s that the federal court supervised the implementation of busing plans in many school districts due to problems with residential segregation. Regardless, court-ordered busing required the desegregation of communities through the mix of white and black students in schools and on buses. Based on the New Right’s strong belief in tradition, they opposed such acts and believed that American tradition was being tarnished. The American government took the pro-choice stance in debate surrounding abortion, however the New Right disagreed with this. Christianity is pro-life, and religious values and morals were believed to be rid of when the choice of abortion was given. Fundamentalists believed that the life of an unborn child was extremely important, and that Jesus Christ was the creator of all things. Although Congress planned for the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment, it was never passed. The New Right opposed this amendment since it called for equal rights between women and men, which would ultimately tarnish American household tradition of women taking care of the home while relying on men for the family income. Other conservative groups of the time either supported or opposed the New Right; two of these groups were The Conservative Coalition and The Moral Majority. The Conservative Coalition was comprised of the Republican party's conservative majority and the Democratic Party’s conservative wing. This unofficial congressional coalition was the New Right’s largest supporters, and served as a strong political force in the 80’s. Some aspects of the Conservative Coalition continues to prevail today, as businesses such as the Wall Street Journal were founded by the organization. The Moral Majority was another group which promoted the New Right. It was founded in 1979 by Jerry Falwell, and was comprised of Christian fundamentalists. This group connected politics and religion and boosted the opinions of the New Right through TV speeches and rallies. This buildup of hype surrounding the New Right played a role in the 1980 election. Reagan saw the impact that the New Right made on the conservative parties and the sheer amount of support that it had. He used this to his advantage by supporting the ideals of the New Right to gain support in the Republican party, and used his overall charisma to win over the rest of the election.
Reagan was a strong advocate for limited government and showed this through his economic policies known as “Reaganomics.” Reagan saw big government as a problem and created a plan to fix America’s economy. Reaganomics proposed the decrease/cut of income taxes, budgets cuts for programs designed for the middle/working class, and an increase in military spending for Cold War efforts. His idea to cut/decrease income taxes was in efforts of lowering prices of goods and raising wages. It was also planned to allow citizens to have more money to invest/spend, which would give banks more money to loan out, and cause an increase in business productivity and production. This was known as the “trickle down” or “supply side” economic system since small changes at the top of the consumer cycle would benefit the entire process. The increase in military spending led to the creation of the Strategic Defense Initiative, also known as “Star Wars”, which developed systems to counteract Soviet missiles and projectiles. Reagan was an avid believer in this program and viewed it as a necessity. Even though it was an extremely expensive project, Reagan believe proper funding could be reached by reducing government spending in other areas. This led to the budget cuts in social programs and ultimately took a toll on the lower/middle class. These cuts were seen as controversial since Reagan only cut programs such as food stamps, student loans, and welfare spending. None of which negatively affected the upper class. The implementation of Reaganomics did seem to help fix some of America’s problems such as employment and low productivity, and overall has maintained a stellar reputation. However, based on who it did and didn’t help, it is seen as controversial. The increase in military spending also increased the nation’s debt, which eventually deregulated the financial system. Federal spending began to outweigh federal income, and by the end of Reagan’s presidency America’s debt had doubled. In general Reagan believed that the Government’s involvement in industry was too restrictive. This led to the deregulation of the oil industry and oil prices. For similar reasons, large corporations began to take advantage of the commons. This was a result of Reagan’s refusal to protect endangered species, and his ignoral of the Environmental Protection Agency. An example of this is the drilling of the Continental Shelf for oil. The government began to deregulate airline corporations; this eliminated entry and price restrictions and allowed airlines to determine their own cheap routes. This eventually caused problems. Federal health and safety inspections in nursing homes were eliminated, which also eventually proved to be problematic. Reaganomics created a mindset that health and environmental risks were a fair price for increased production and profit. Overall Reagan implemented an extreme wave of deregulation across the country, which can be seen to play into the economic crash of 2008. Both the increase in debt and the mindset of deregulation led to the Gramm-Leach Bliley act.
Reagan was a known communist fighter and firmly believed that the U.S. was the best Cold War fighter, and the epitome of capitalist societies which could take care of itself. He believed that, “the government is not the solution, but the problem” which shows his right-wing stance. Unlike many other presidents, Reagan didn’t believe in detente when it came to foreign relations. Instead, he was more practical. Reagan had a more realistic foreign policy; he was open to negotiations with certain people, however refused to work with “evil empires,” causing the U.S. to have to be the strongest. He was known to approach international affairs with an ideology that followed, “speak softly and carry a big stick.” An example of this was through the Star Wars program where the U.S. practiced non-aggression, however held the power to act violently if it proved to be necessary. The only war that took placed during Reagan’s presidency was on Grenada, a small Caribbean island. Reagan ordered an invasion following a communist coup in order to get rid of the Marxist leader there. Also around this time, Reagan began a new era of communication between the Unites States and the Soviet Union. Reagan finally viewed Mikhail Gorbachev, unlike previous Soviet leaders, as someone who he could deal with. Reagan was able to share ideas with Gorbachev regarding foreign, economic, and defense policy, eventually causing a fair amount of Summit meetings between the two. Through these meetings, Reagan was able to help Gorbachev adopt Perestroika and Glasnost in the Soviet Union, and overall create a greater sense of freedom in their politics. Also at the same time, an undercover Marine operation in Iran was planned by Reagan. However, Reagan pulled out American troops when many Marines were killed by a member of the Sandinistas. Although Reagan’s policies did cause an unfortunate debt buildup, his methods of foreign policy are best regarded as ‘strategic.’ He effectively fixed relations between the Soviet Union and the U.S., while maintaining his stance as a fierce communist fighter.
Although traces of the Iran-Contra affair can be traced back to previous administrations, this affair was a well known event that occurred during Reagan’s presidency. The beginning of the affair was based on the previous discontent between Iranian citizens and the U.S. The Hezbollah organization had remained angry about the Shah’s arrival in the U.S. and took many American hostages. In efforts of getting these hostages back, Reagan’s administration secretly agreed to sell arms to Iran, through Israel. To the American public it seemed as though hostages were being release at no cost, however it was quite the contrary. Members of the National Security Council (NSC), namely the National Security advisor, John Poindexter, and his deputy, Oliver North, took the affair even father. They created the idea of supporting the Contra rebels in Nicaragua, against their Socialist government run by the Sandinistas, by giving them the money from the Iranian arms sales. This created a large affair because such actions directly violated the Boland Amendment which prohibited American funding of the Nicaraguan Contras. This caused problems for Reagan because his subordinates directly defied the Constitution, and his role in the arms sale in Iran proved that he went against his promise of never dealing with terrorists. Oliver North acted as a “fall guy” for the diversion of funds to the Contras since he admitted to being the mastermind of the operation and carrying out the project without the President’s knowledge or approval. North and Poindexter destroyed all evidence linking the President to the diversion of funds to the Contras, however it was clear that Reagan was aware of the Arms deals in Iran. The Tower Commission later reported that Reagan was indeed aware of the diversion of funds, however sizable evidence still does not exist. Although North significantly protected Reagan from the consequences of the affair, Reagan’s reputation was still seen to be damaged.
The end of the Cold War took place during Reagan’s presidency. Many factors played into this change, however the main influence is is still debatable. Luckily, historians are able to agree on four main “actors” in the end of the war. Reagan has received a lot of credit for the end of the war, mainly because of the arms race. Unlike Kissinger and Nixon, Reagan believed in the power of aggression and knew that the Soviet Union could be beaten. The arms race against the Soviet Union was taken to the point where the U.S. outspent them, and the Soviets couldn’t continue to fund their growing military. Reagan had increased America’s military spending by an incredible 40%. The Reagan Doctrine also affected the Soviet Union by overwhelming and restricting its global influence. It armed other nations fighting against them, and increased the “Starwars” program. The Star Wars program eliminated any chance of mutually assured destruction, and rendered the Soviet Union’s weapons as useless. Although it was never implemented, the plan effectively removed the Soviet’s war power. Through this pressure against the Soviet Union and his actions against their policies, Reagan is considered one of the main factors of the end of the Cold War. Lech Walesa, a Polish politician and human rights activities, was another person who played a role in the end of the war. Walesa lead the Solidarity movement, an anti-communist work union group which organized peaceful protests and advocated for better living conditions and welfare. This was based on the poor conditions in Poland at the time. The solidarity movement gained much support and was eventually favored by 80% of the working class. Since the Solidarity movement went against the ideology of the Soviet Union, it was declared illegal in the early 1980’s. This led to the arrest of Walesa, and other solidarity leaders. When the Polish government continued to suffer, the public began to strike. Food prices had been risen by 40%, and these changes ultimately lead to a reappearance of Solidarity. The combined influence of Solidarity and the riots caused the government to succumb to the demands of the people, and allowed Walesa to rise in power once again. These changes caused Poland to hold free elections in 1989, and although the Communist politicians believed they would win, every Parliament position was filled by a Solidarity group member. Walesa was also elected as the new president. Overall Walesa was a large contributor to the end of the Cold War because he spread awareness of the corruption within the government of the Soviet Union and its faulty economic system. Pope John Paul II was another key figure in the end of the war. He was the first foreign (Polish) pope, who had first hand experience of the Nazi’s oppression, and was extremely anti-communist. The Polish people praised the Pope and listened to his messages. Many attended his speeches, and he was known to hold a very large influence over society. He is considered an important person when it comes to the end of the war since he made the world aware of the USSR’s unjust actions, and inhumane forms of oppression taking place. Lastly, Mikhail Gorbachev was a key factor in the end of the Cold War. Gorbachev was the General Secretary of the Soviet Union, and compared to other leaders, noticed the Soviet Union’s rough shape and was willing to make changes. Although his intention was not to allow the Berlin Wall to fall, he realized that significant changes were necessary if the economy was going to be improved. Gorbachev went against the old Brezhnev Doctrine and cut the USSR’s military spending in order to focus of the survival of the Soviet Union on a domestic level. Although he worked hard towards this goal, the fall of the Berlin Wall didn’t bring any economic relief for the Soviet Union. Regardless, the less radical policies of Gorbachev allowed for a more open environment in the Soviet Union and led to the end of the Cold War.
In 1988, George H.W. Bush, previous vice-president to Ronald Reagan, ran for office. This election was won against Michael Dukakis. Dukakis came off as “cold” to the American public, and was known to answer press questions inappropriately or without any amounts of concern or emotion. The Willie Horton commercial showed a mug shot of an African-American man, and talked of a prisoner from Massachusetts on furlough who committed a crime in another state. The commercial was a negative campaign for the democrats, and was denounced because of its affiliation with racial prejudices. During Bush’s campaign, he pledged “Read my lips: no new taxes.” This was a promise to not tax Americans any more, however he ended up going against this. Reagan had left behind an enormous amount of debt, and although the Republicans thought government spending should be cut, the democrats believed that raising taxes would eliminate the deficit. Although Bush attempted to fight Congress, he eventually had to go against his campaign promise. This caused a lack of trust for Bush and is seen as one of the reasons why he didn’t get reelected.
During the early months of Bush’s presidency, a large Exxon-Valdez oil tanker off the coast of Alaska and spilled over 10 million gallons of gas into the ocean. This spill was extremely damaging and assumed the role as America’s second largest oil spill. This hurt Bush’s reputation and forced him to take a larger step towards fixing environmental issues. He signed off on the Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1990, which was a major amendment that created regulatory and extended programs to control acid rain and toxic pollutants. This addressed the environmental issues caused by the oil spill. Bush was known to have an “ambivalent” approach when it came to environmental issues because he often had mixed feelings. An example was his support of the Clean Water Act but his veto on a biodiversity act which protected endangered species which was presented at the Earth Summit in Rio. Bush also signed the Framework Convention on Climate Change which increased the U.S.’ responsibility for its footprint, and set a general standard for the rest of the country.
Two liberal Justices, Thurgood Marshall and William Brennan, retired from the Supreme Court in 1991. In this situation, only a President has the ability to appoint a replacement. Bush eventually decided to hire two conservative representatives: Clarence Thomas and David Souter. This dramatically altered the Supreme Court by making it much more conservative than before. After Kennedy and Reagan many Justices had been liberal. Thomas’ appointment was also seen as controversial due to his previous accusations of secual harrasment. Although he had been previously put on trial by the Senate for such allegations, he was once again tried for gaining his Justice position based on his race. This was interesting because Thomas was known to be against Affirmative Action since he believed that racism had ended.
Many historic international events happened during the presidency of George H.W. Bush. Some of the most known are Tiananmen Square, the fall of the Berlin Wall, the invasion of Panama, and the capture of Manuel Noriega. The Tiananmen Square event occurred in June of 1989 when a peaceful protest began. This protest was against the oppression of China’s communist government, and called for a democracy. Although the protest was peaceful, the Chinese government ordered the army to storm the square with tanks regardless of the violence they may create. This resulted in the death of thousands since the tanks quickly opened fire on the crowd. This event was kept on the down low, and the U.S. press only found out from reporters who had secretly filmed the event from their hotel room windows. Due to the secrecy of the massacre the exact number of casualties is unknown, and the square was completely cleaned up by the next morning. This left many of the protestors vanish without an explanation for their absence. One of the more famous people who was involved and disappeared was the “tank man.” This man was seen on video to stand in front of the tanks and prevent them from leave the area the morning after the massacre. As a punishment for this event Bush cut off all trades and arms sales with China, and condemned their government. Another event that occurred during Bush’s presidency was the fall of the Berlin Wall. Although it took place during his Administration, the praise for the fall of the wall was given to Reagan. This event occurred when Hungary removed its defenses from the wall, and many Europeans attempted to escape through it and to Austria. Since the guards at war between East and West Berlin weren’t given specific instructions, they allowed people to cross through freely. Those who escaped (more than 1,00 people) were later stripped of their citizenship. Due to the anger this ultimately caused, the people tore down the Berlin Wall. Also during Bush’s presidency was the invasion of Panama. This was a the first event when America stepped in as “the policemen of the world,” and began a trend of intervention. Panama’s dictator Manuel Noriega had continuously refused to acknowledge America’s powers even though they were trading partners and despite the fact that Panama had severe internal conflict. As a result, Americans began to pressure Bush into capturing Noriega based on his known involvement in drug trafficking and poor conduct towards the United States. When the U.S. invaded, Noriega fled the country, however was later captured by American Army soldiers. Overall, all of these events changed America’s method of foreign policy. The country shifted from staying out of conflict, to feeling the need to fix every problem in the world.
America was always known to have problems with Middle Eastern countries, these problems were seen to continue with Gulf War I. This conflict was triggered by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait City and an attempt to kill Kuwait’s leaders. The U.S. was asked to intervene by Saudi Arabia, Iraq’s nearby neighbor who was worried that Iraq would attempt to invade them. The U.S. had good relations with Saudi Arabia since they were one of America’s largest oil providers. It was Saudi Arabia’s request which acted as the main reason why the U.S. joined the war. The U.S. officially entered the war through an aerial assault on Iraq in order to push back their forces before putting boots on the ground. Overall the war cost around 54 million dollars, however this was mainly paid for by Saudi Arabia. Bush realized when the U.S. had helped out the war effort enough and pulled out troops before it was pushed into Baghdad, this was in efforts of saving money and troops. Overall America’s involvement in Gulf War I was a success; the problem was solved and the U.S.’ confidence as the “policemen of the world” was further heightened. Unfortunately however, this conflict wasn’t completely resolved, as Bush Jr. would eventually send troops back to Iraq.
Many social issues gained traction during the 80’s; some of the most well known were the AIDS epidemic, drug abuse, education, and the urban crises. AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) was introduced to America as a new disease and was found to be very prevalent amongst young, gay, males. Because of this, it was labeled as the “gay cancer” and earned the gay community a large amount of scrutiny. This kept gay people from being eligible for blood donations, and caused the gay community to be blamed for the spread of the disease. This syndrome is incurable and very uncomfortable. After AIDS had been found in other demographics it became clear that it was actually spread through the sharing of needles. Drug abuse became a growing problem in the U.S. Casual drug use became very prevalent, especially with hard drugs such as crack, cocaine, and heroine. Furthermore, Nancy Reagan began the “Just Say No” campaign which battled drug abuse, violence, and premarital sex. By 1988 there were more than 12,000 “Just Say No” clubs in America, and high school cocaine use dropped by 33%. In 1986 the “Just Say No Drug Week” proclamation was signed which further heightened the influence of the campaign. During this time, America’s educational system was also under scrutiny. Reagan’s National Commission of Excellence in Education released a report in 1983 which said that American schools were failing. It also gave ways to reform America’s education system by creating distinct content, standards, expectations, and leadership, fiscal, and teaching reports. It also mandated that student take a certain amount of years of each subject, and that the school days last for seven hours. Colleges were also forced to raise admission standards in order to make students work harder to get accepted. Urban Centers were also facing big problems during this time. Reagan’s tax cuts had widened the gap between economic classes, which increased crime rates, and heightened the level of poverty in certain cities. Although many people pointed out the problem of homelessness in urban areas, Reagan believed that homeless people chose to live on the streets and if they wanted a different lifestyle they could go get jobs.
In the election of 1992 three main candidates caught America’s attention; these men were George H.W. Bush, Ross Perot, and Bill Clinton. Bush was running for reelection as the Republican candidate, however he didn’t win because he had broken his previous campaign promise of not creating/raising taxes. The public was also tired of Republican presidents in general, and following the end of the Cold War Bush’s strengths in foreign policy wasn’t exactly needed. Ross Perot was an independent candidate who was a part of the Independent Movement. Originally Perot only held 19% of the popular vote. Due to his refusal to listen to campaign managers and the firing of his workers, he decided to withdraw his candidacy. He had claimed that he did so because he was being threatened by the Republican party; he believed they would expose compromising photos of his daughter which would tarnish his reputation. His withdrawal helped Clinton gain more votes since most of his supporters disliked Reagan and Bush. Clinton was the democratic candidate who ended up winning 370/58 electoral votes and 43% of the popular vote. He had campaigned on the promise of being a “new democrat” who supported welfare, social equity, tax cuts, support of the middle class, and a conservative finances.
One of Clinton’s campaign promises was the creation of affordable health care. He placed his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, in charge of this effort. Hillary created many proposals to deal with the way healthcare providers dealt with patients with pre-existing conditions. Her main plan was called “The Clinton Healthcare Plan,” aka the Health Security Act of 1993. This plan made it mandatory to give all employees health insurance (a very socialist program). In the end this plan failed because Hillary overlooked the how difficult it is to work with insurance companies, and because private insurance companies were known to charge employees very large fees. Since most of the rich already had their own health insurance, the reform would only cover people who couldn’t afford it; this would cause the spending of national money. Conservatives hated this since it made companies give out insurance even when they couldn’t afford it. They also disliked it because it used up a lot of the nation’s money. Even some democrats who favored the Clintons didn’t support the Act.
Clinton had a balanced budget and benefitted from this in the early 1990s. This was due to the rise of taxes which benefitted the government’s income and budget. Even though Bush had suffered from the implementation of a tax raise, it proved to be effective for Clinton. A balanced budget was also arrived upon from the influence of Newt Gingrich. Gingrich was a Republican who created a deal which kept checks and balances on Clinton’s administration by limiting the amount of debt and balancing the national budget. This deal was arrived upon by letting Congress keep an all-Republican government. The public saw this plan as appealing, which led to its success. It was very effective in keeping a stable economy and allowing Republican influence over Congress.
During Clinton’s presidency, America experienced a sudden tech boom. This was labeled the “dot.com” and brough along the creation of laptopns, cell phones, personal computers, and the internet. Although tech booms continue to occur today, they began during the Clinton years. The ability to store paperwork online was revolutionary, and these new changes suddenly allowed for more jobs, a boost in the stock market, and an opportunity to benefit and stabilize the economy. Tech companies became very popular and suddenly stock options expanded farther than for only oil and bank companies. This increase in technology also increased America’s work efficiency since data was easier to work with than paper. At the time, dial-up internet was cunning edge. This was a noisy process that involved the use of a telephone and a computer at the same time. Overtime these pieces of seemingly primitive technology pieces have evolved into the complex and visionary products we rely on every day.
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The New Right was a group of social and fiscal conservatives who believed in a small government. They didn’t spend money on those who were undeserving, believed in deregulation of the government’s rule, and the old traditions of America. Their policies aligned with white superiority and the opposition of the Civil Rights movements of the 60’s and 70’s. In addition, these fundamentalists strongly disagreed with newly passed laws and acts such as the ban of school prayer, the teaching of evolution, affirmative action, court-ordered busing, abortions, and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). In the early 1960’s the Supreme Court banned school prayer in public schools based on its violation of the first amendment. The abolition of this long standing tradition was strongly opposed by the New Right, as it rid the school system of old tradition and good christian values. The New Right also disagreed with the teaching of evolution in classrooms rather than the theory of creationism. This topic was the subject of heavy debate during the 1980’s. Many teachers who dared to teached evolution in their classrooms were often fired for doing so. Fundamentalists believed that creationism should be the only theory taught since religion is one of America’s fundamental roots, and because its values don’t coincide with those of evolution. Affirmative Action was a concept that was heavily scrutinized by the New Right because it gave more job opportunities to people of color and women. This was done by requiring business owners to consider any minority applying to a job when looking for new employees. This was based on the superfluous amount of jobs given to white males with jobs while women and men of color struggled to find employment. The New Right opposed this act because it undermined white superiority and gave jobs to those who are less trained and qualified for certain jobs just because of their gender or race. This seemed to be backwards racism since businesses were now seen to hold grudges against caucasian males. In the 1950’s the Supreme Court declared the segregation of buses to be unconstitutional. It was during the 1980’s that the federal court supervised the implementation of busing plans in many school districts due to problems with residential segregation. Regardless, court-ordered busing required the desegregation of communities through the mix of white and black students in schools and on buses. Based on the New Right’s strong belief in tradition, they opposed such acts and believed that American tradition was being tarnished. The American government took the pro-choice stance in debate surrounding abortion, however the New Right disagreed with this. Christianity is pro-life, and religious values and morals were believed to be rid of when the choice of abortion was given. Fundamentalists believed that the life of an unborn child was extremely important, and that Jesus Christ was the creator of all things. Although Congress planned for the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment, it was never passed. The New Right opposed this amendment since it called for equal rights between women and men, which would ultimately tarnish American household tradition of women taking care of the home while relying on men for the family income. Other conservative groups of the time either supported or opposed the New Right; two of these groups were The Conservative Coalition and The Moral Majority. The Conservative Coalition was comprised of the Republican party's conservative majority and the Democratic Party’s conservative wing. This unofficial congressional coalition was the New Right’s largest supporters, and served as a strong political force in the 80’s. Some aspects of the Conservative Coalition continues to prevail today, as businesses such as the Wall Street Journal were founded by the organization. The Moral Majority was another group which promoted the New Right. It was founded in 1979 by Jerry Falwell, and was comprised of Christian fundamentalists. This group connected politics and religion and boosted the opinions of the New Right through TV speeches and rallies. This buildup of hype surrounding the New Right played a role in the 1980 election. Reagan saw the impact that the New Right made on the conservative parties and the sheer amount of support that it had. He used this to his advantage by supporting the ideals of the New Right to gain support in the Republican party, and used his overall charisma to win over the rest of the election.
Reagan was a strong advocate for limited government and showed this through his economic policies known as “Reaganomics.” Reagan saw big government as a problem and created a plan to fix America’s economy. Reaganomics proposed the decrease/cut of income taxes, budgets cuts for programs designed for the middle/working class, and an increase in military spending for Cold War efforts. His idea to cut/decrease income taxes was in efforts of lowering prices of goods and raising wages. It was also planned to allow citizens to have more money to invest/spend, which would give banks more money to loan out, and cause an increase in business productivity and production. This was known as the “trickle down” or “supply side” economic system since small changes at the top of the consumer cycle would benefit the entire process. The increase in military spending led to the creation of the Strategic Defense Initiative, also known as “Star Wars”, which developed systems to counteract Soviet missiles and projectiles. Reagan was an avid believer in this program and viewed it as a necessity. Even though it was an extremely expensive project, Reagan believe proper funding could be reached by reducing government spending in other areas. This led to the budget cuts in social programs and ultimately took a toll on the lower/middle class. These cuts were seen as controversial since Reagan only cut programs such as food stamps, student loans, and welfare spending. None of which negatively affected the upper class. The implementation of Reaganomics did seem to help fix some of America’s problems such as employment and low productivity, and overall has maintained a stellar reputation. However, based on who it did and didn’t help, it is seen as controversial. The increase in military spending also increased the nation’s debt, which eventually deregulated the financial system. Federal spending began to outweigh federal income, and by the end of Reagan’s presidency America’s debt had doubled. In general Reagan believed that the Government’s involvement in industry was too restrictive. This led to the deregulation of the oil industry and oil prices. For similar reasons, large corporations began to take advantage of the commons. This was a result of Reagan’s refusal to protect endangered species, and his ignoral of the Environmental Protection Agency. An example of this is the drilling of the Continental Shelf for oil. The government began to deregulate airline corporations; this eliminated entry and price restrictions and allowed airlines to determine their own cheap routes. This eventually caused problems. Federal health and safety inspections in nursing homes were eliminated, which also eventually proved to be problematic. Reaganomics created a mindset that health and environmental risks were a fair price for increased production and profit. Overall Reagan implemented an extreme wave of deregulation across the country, which can be seen to play into the economic crash of 2008. Both the increase in debt and the mindset of deregulation led to the Gramm-Leach Bliley act.
Reagan was a known communist fighter and firmly believed that the U.S. was the best Cold War fighter, and the epitome of capitalist societies which could take care of itself. He believed that, “the government is not the solution, but the problem” which shows his right-wing stance. Unlike many other presidents, Reagan didn’t believe in detente when it came to foreign relations. Instead, he was more practical. Reagan had a more realistic foreign policy; he was open to negotiations with certain people, however refused to work with “evil empires,” causing the U.S. to have to be the strongest. He was known to approach international affairs with an ideology that followed, “speak softly and carry a big stick.” An example of this was through the Star Wars program where the U.S. practiced non-aggression, however held the power to act violently if it proved to be necessary. The only war that took placed during Reagan’s presidency was on Grenada, a small Caribbean island. Reagan ordered an invasion following a communist coup in order to get rid of the Marxist leader there. Also around this time, Reagan began a new era of communication between the Unites States and the Soviet Union. Reagan finally viewed Mikhail Gorbachev, unlike previous Soviet leaders, as someone who he could deal with. Reagan was able to share ideas with Gorbachev regarding foreign, economic, and defense policy, eventually causing a fair amount of Summit meetings between the two. Through these meetings, Reagan was able to help Gorbachev adopt Perestroika and Glasnost in the Soviet Union, and overall create a greater sense of freedom in their politics. Also at the same time, an undercover Marine operation in Iran was planned by Reagan. However, Reagan pulled out American troops when many Marines were killed by a member of the Sandinistas. Although Reagan’s policies did cause an unfortunate debt buildup, his methods of foreign policy are best regarded as ‘strategic.’ He effectively fixed relations between the Soviet Union and the U.S., while maintaining his stance as a fierce communist fighter.
Although traces of the Iran-Contra affair can be traced back to previous administrations, this affair was a well known event that occurred during Reagan’s presidency. The beginning of the affair was based on the previous discontent between Iranian citizens and the U.S. The Hezbollah organization had remained angry about the Shah’s arrival in the U.S. and took many American hostages. In efforts of getting these hostages back, Reagan’s administration secretly agreed to sell arms to Iran, through Israel. To the American public it seemed as though hostages were being release at no cost, however it was quite the contrary. Members of the National Security Council (NSC), namely the National Security advisor, John Poindexter, and his deputy, Oliver North, took the affair even father. They created the idea of supporting the Contra rebels in Nicaragua, against their Socialist government run by the Sandinistas, by giving them the money from the Iranian arms sales. This created a large affair because such actions directly violated the Boland Amendment which prohibited American funding of the Nicaraguan Contras. This caused problems for Reagan because his subordinates directly defied the Constitution, and his role in the arms sale in Iran proved that he went against his promise of never dealing with terrorists. Oliver North acted as a “fall guy” for the diversion of funds to the Contras since he admitted to being the mastermind of the operation and carrying out the project without the President’s knowledge or approval. North and Poindexter destroyed all evidence linking the President to the diversion of funds to the Contras, however it was clear that Reagan was aware of the Arms deals in Iran. The Tower Commission later reported that Reagan was indeed aware of the diversion of funds, however sizable evidence still does not exist. Although North significantly protected Reagan from the consequences of the affair, Reagan’s reputation was still seen to be damaged.
The end of the Cold War took place during Reagan’s presidency. Many factors played into this change, however the main influence is is still debatable. Luckily, historians are able to agree on four main “actors” in the end of the war. Reagan has received a lot of credit for the end of the war, mainly because of the arms race. Unlike Kissinger and Nixon, Reagan believed in the power of aggression and knew that the Soviet Union could be beaten. The arms race against the Soviet Union was taken to the point where the U.S. outspent them, and the Soviets couldn’t continue to fund their growing military. Reagan had increased America’s military spending by an incredible 40%. The Reagan Doctrine also affected the Soviet Union by overwhelming and restricting its global influence. It armed other nations fighting against them, and increased the “Starwars” program. The Star Wars program eliminated any chance of mutually assured destruction, and rendered the Soviet Union’s weapons as useless. Although it was never implemented, the plan effectively removed the Soviet’s war power. Through this pressure against the Soviet Union and his actions against their policies, Reagan is considered one of the main factors of the end of the Cold War. Lech Walesa, a Polish politician and human rights activities, was another person who played a role in the end of the war. Walesa lead the Solidarity movement, an anti-communist work union group which organized peaceful protests and advocated for better living conditions and welfare. This was based on the poor conditions in Poland at the time. The solidarity movement gained much support and was eventually favored by 80% of the working class. Since the Solidarity movement went against the ideology of the Soviet Union, it was declared illegal in the early 1980’s. This led to the arrest of Walesa, and other solidarity leaders. When the Polish government continued to suffer, the public began to strike. Food prices had been risen by 40%, and these changes ultimately lead to a reappearance of Solidarity. The combined influence of Solidarity and the riots caused the government to succumb to the demands of the people, and allowed Walesa to rise in power once again. These changes caused Poland to hold free elections in 1989, and although the Communist politicians believed they would win, every Parliament position was filled by a Solidarity group member. Walesa was also elected as the new president. Overall Walesa was a large contributor to the end of the Cold War because he spread awareness of the corruption within the government of the Soviet Union and its faulty economic system. Pope John Paul II was another key figure in the end of the war. He was the first foreign (Polish) pope, who had first hand experience of the Nazi’s oppression, and was extremely anti-communist. The Polish people praised the Pope and listened to his messages. Many attended his speeches, and he was known to hold a very large influence over society. He is considered an important person when it comes to the end of the war since he made the world aware of the USSR’s unjust actions, and inhumane forms of oppression taking place. Lastly, Mikhail Gorbachev was a key factor in the end of the Cold War. Gorbachev was the General Secretary of the Soviet Union, and compared to other leaders, noticed the Soviet Union’s rough shape and was willing to make changes. Although his intention was not to allow the Berlin Wall to fall, he realized that significant changes were necessary if the economy was going to be improved. Gorbachev went against the old Brezhnev Doctrine and cut the USSR’s military spending in order to focus of the survival of the Soviet Union on a domestic level. Although he worked hard towards this goal, the fall of the Berlin Wall didn’t bring any economic relief for the Soviet Union. Regardless, the less radical policies of Gorbachev allowed for a more open environment in the Soviet Union and led to the end of the Cold War.
In 1988, George H.W. Bush, previous vice-president to Ronald Reagan, ran for office. This election was won against Michael Dukakis. Dukakis came off as “cold” to the American public, and was known to answer press questions inappropriately or without any amounts of concern or emotion. The Willie Horton commercial showed a mug shot of an African-American man, and talked of a prisoner from Massachusetts on furlough who committed a crime in another state. The commercial was a negative campaign for the democrats, and was denounced because of its affiliation with racial prejudices. During Bush’s campaign, he pledged “Read my lips: no new taxes.” This was a promise to not tax Americans any more, however he ended up going against this. Reagan had left behind an enormous amount of debt, and although the Republicans thought government spending should be cut, the democrats believed that raising taxes would eliminate the deficit. Although Bush attempted to fight Congress, he eventually had to go against his campaign promise. This caused a lack of trust for Bush and is seen as one of the reasons why he didn’t get reelected.
During the early months of Bush’s presidency, a large Exxon-Valdez oil tanker off the coast of Alaska and spilled over 10 million gallons of gas into the ocean. This spill was extremely damaging and assumed the role as America’s second largest oil spill. This hurt Bush’s reputation and forced him to take a larger step towards fixing environmental issues. He signed off on the Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1990, which was a major amendment that created regulatory and extended programs to control acid rain and toxic pollutants. This addressed the environmental issues caused by the oil spill. Bush was known to have an “ambivalent” approach when it came to environmental issues because he often had mixed feelings. An example was his support of the Clean Water Act but his veto on a biodiversity act which protected endangered species which was presented at the Earth Summit in Rio. Bush also signed the Framework Convention on Climate Change which increased the U.S.’ responsibility for its footprint, and set a general standard for the rest of the country.
Two liberal Justices, Thurgood Marshall and William Brennan, retired from the Supreme Court in 1991. In this situation, only a President has the ability to appoint a replacement. Bush eventually decided to hire two conservative representatives: Clarence Thomas and David Souter. This dramatically altered the Supreme Court by making it much more conservative than before. After Kennedy and Reagan many Justices had been liberal. Thomas’ appointment was also seen as controversial due to his previous accusations of secual harrasment. Although he had been previously put on trial by the Senate for such allegations, he was once again tried for gaining his Justice position based on his race. This was interesting because Thomas was known to be against Affirmative Action since he believed that racism had ended.
Many historic international events happened during the presidency of George H.W. Bush. Some of the most known are Tiananmen Square, the fall of the Berlin Wall, the invasion of Panama, and the capture of Manuel Noriega. The Tiananmen Square event occurred in June of 1989 when a peaceful protest began. This protest was against the oppression of China’s communist government, and called for a democracy. Although the protest was peaceful, the Chinese government ordered the army to storm the square with tanks regardless of the violence they may create. This resulted in the death of thousands since the tanks quickly opened fire on the crowd. This event was kept on the down low, and the U.S. press only found out from reporters who had secretly filmed the event from their hotel room windows. Due to the secrecy of the massacre the exact number of casualties is unknown, and the square was completely cleaned up by the next morning. This left many of the protestors vanish without an explanation for their absence. One of the more famous people who was involved and disappeared was the “tank man.” This man was seen on video to stand in front of the tanks and prevent them from leave the area the morning after the massacre. As a punishment for this event Bush cut off all trades and arms sales with China, and condemned their government. Another event that occurred during Bush’s presidency was the fall of the Berlin Wall. Although it took place during his Administration, the praise for the fall of the wall was given to Reagan. This event occurred when Hungary removed its defenses from the wall, and many Europeans attempted to escape through it and to Austria. Since the guards at war between East and West Berlin weren’t given specific instructions, they allowed people to cross through freely. Those who escaped (more than 1,00 people) were later stripped of their citizenship. Due to the anger this ultimately caused, the people tore down the Berlin Wall. Also during Bush’s presidency was the invasion of Panama. This was a the first event when America stepped in as “the policemen of the world,” and began a trend of intervention. Panama’s dictator Manuel Noriega had continuously refused to acknowledge America’s powers even though they were trading partners and despite the fact that Panama had severe internal conflict. As a result, Americans began to pressure Bush into capturing Noriega based on his known involvement in drug trafficking and poor conduct towards the United States. When the U.S. invaded, Noriega fled the country, however was later captured by American Army soldiers. Overall, all of these events changed America’s method of foreign policy. The country shifted from staying out of conflict, to feeling the need to fix every problem in the world.
America was always known to have problems with Middle Eastern countries, these problems were seen to continue with Gulf War I. This conflict was triggered by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait City and an attempt to kill Kuwait’s leaders. The U.S. was asked to intervene by Saudi Arabia, Iraq’s nearby neighbor who was worried that Iraq would attempt to invade them. The U.S. had good relations with Saudi Arabia since they were one of America’s largest oil providers. It was Saudi Arabia’s request which acted as the main reason why the U.S. joined the war. The U.S. officially entered the war through an aerial assault on Iraq in order to push back their forces before putting boots on the ground. Overall the war cost around 54 million dollars, however this was mainly paid for by Saudi Arabia. Bush realized when the U.S. had helped out the war effort enough and pulled out troops before it was pushed into Baghdad, this was in efforts of saving money and troops. Overall America’s involvement in Gulf War I was a success; the problem was solved and the U.S.’ confidence as the “policemen of the world” was further heightened. Unfortunately however, this conflict wasn’t completely resolved, as Bush Jr. would eventually send troops back to Iraq.
Many social issues gained traction during the 80’s; some of the most well known were the AIDS epidemic, drug abuse, education, and the urban crises. AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) was introduced to America as a new disease and was found to be very prevalent amongst young, gay, males. Because of this, it was labeled as the “gay cancer” and earned the gay community a large amount of scrutiny. This kept gay people from being eligible for blood donations, and caused the gay community to be blamed for the spread of the disease. This syndrome is incurable and very uncomfortable. After AIDS had been found in other demographics it became clear that it was actually spread through the sharing of needles. Drug abuse became a growing problem in the U.S. Casual drug use became very prevalent, especially with hard drugs such as crack, cocaine, and heroine. Furthermore, Nancy Reagan began the “Just Say No” campaign which battled drug abuse, violence, and premarital sex. By 1988 there were more than 12,000 “Just Say No” clubs in America, and high school cocaine use dropped by 33%. In 1986 the “Just Say No Drug Week” proclamation was signed which further heightened the influence of the campaign. During this time, America’s educational system was also under scrutiny. Reagan’s National Commission of Excellence in Education released a report in 1983 which said that American schools were failing. It also gave ways to reform America’s education system by creating distinct content, standards, expectations, and leadership, fiscal, and teaching reports. It also mandated that student take a certain amount of years of each subject, and that the school days last for seven hours. Colleges were also forced to raise admission standards in order to make students work harder to get accepted. Urban Centers were also facing big problems during this time. Reagan’s tax cuts had widened the gap between economic classes, which increased crime rates, and heightened the level of poverty in certain cities. Although many people pointed out the problem of homelessness in urban areas, Reagan believed that homeless people chose to live on the streets and if they wanted a different lifestyle they could go get jobs.
In the election of 1992 three main candidates caught America’s attention; these men were George H.W. Bush, Ross Perot, and Bill Clinton. Bush was running for reelection as the Republican candidate, however he didn’t win because he had broken his previous campaign promise of not creating/raising taxes. The public was also tired of Republican presidents in general, and following the end of the Cold War Bush’s strengths in foreign policy wasn’t exactly needed. Ross Perot was an independent candidate who was a part of the Independent Movement. Originally Perot only held 19% of the popular vote. Due to his refusal to listen to campaign managers and the firing of his workers, he decided to withdraw his candidacy. He had claimed that he did so because he was being threatened by the Republican party; he believed they would expose compromising photos of his daughter which would tarnish his reputation. His withdrawal helped Clinton gain more votes since most of his supporters disliked Reagan and Bush. Clinton was the democratic candidate who ended up winning 370/58 electoral votes and 43% of the popular vote. He had campaigned on the promise of being a “new democrat” who supported welfare, social equity, tax cuts, support of the middle class, and a conservative finances.
One of Clinton’s campaign promises was the creation of affordable health care. He placed his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, in charge of this effort. Hillary created many proposals to deal with the way healthcare providers dealt with patients with pre-existing conditions. Her main plan was called “The Clinton Healthcare Plan,” aka the Health Security Act of 1993. This plan made it mandatory to give all employees health insurance (a very socialist program). In the end this plan failed because Hillary overlooked the how difficult it is to work with insurance companies, and because private insurance companies were known to charge employees very large fees. Since most of the rich already had their own health insurance, the reform would only cover people who couldn’t afford it; this would cause the spending of national money. Conservatives hated this since it made companies give out insurance even when they couldn’t afford it. They also disliked it because it used up a lot of the nation’s money. Even some democrats who favored the Clintons didn’t support the Act.
Clinton had a balanced budget and benefitted from this in the early 1990s. This was due to the rise of taxes which benefitted the government’s income and budget. Even though Bush had suffered from the implementation of a tax raise, it proved to be effective for Clinton. A balanced budget was also arrived upon from the influence of Newt Gingrich. Gingrich was a Republican who created a deal which kept checks and balances on Clinton’s administration by limiting the amount of debt and balancing the national budget. This deal was arrived upon by letting Congress keep an all-Republican government. The public saw this plan as appealing, which led to its success. It was very effective in keeping a stable economy and allowing Republican influence over Congress.
During Clinton’s presidency, America experienced a sudden tech boom. This was labeled the “dot.com” and brough along the creation of laptopns, cell phones, personal computers, and the internet. Although tech booms continue to occur today, they began during the Clinton years. The ability to store paperwork online was revolutionary, and these new changes suddenly allowed for more jobs, a boost in the stock market, and an opportunity to benefit and stabilize the economy. Tech companies became very popular and suddenly stock options expanded farther than for only oil and bank companies. This increase in technology also increased America’s work efficiency since data was easier to work with than paper. At the time, dial-up internet was cunning edge. This was a noisy process that involved the use of a telephone and a computer at the same time. Overtime these pieces of seemingly primitive technology pieces have evolved into the complex and visionary products we rely on every day.
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Honors Essay 15 - Clinton Part 2 & George W. Bush
Newt Gingrich, a strict Republican, was elected Speaker of the House during President Clinton’s first mid-term elections. Previously Gingrich had been the Republican Party’s House Minority Leader. It was then that Gingrich proposed the “Contract With America.” This contract involved eight reforms promised by the Republican Party to be voted on by the House of Representatives. It essentially called for the continuation of Congress’ Republican rule in exchange for monitoring Clinton’s actions and avoiding an unbalanced budget. Naturally, as a result of this contract, conflict occurred. Clinton was a democrat and his ideology clashed with the Republicans in Congress over Clinton’s entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare. Clinton gave large sums of money to these programs in the name of the people, however the Republicans felt as though he was being frivolous with his spending. The Republicans have been known to favor small government and low taxes, hence their interest in less spending on these entitlement programs. Although Clinton passed a welfare reform in an attempt to calm the waters between him and Congress, the Republicans continued to disagree with Clinton’s ideals. Congress was eventually pushed to shut down the government for 27 days as an attempt to force Clinton to back down. Clinton persevered through the situation and gained a lot of popularity for doing so. He also lowered the Republican party’s rankings by blaming the shut down on them. The general public saw the Republicans as too extremely vested in their ideals and uncompromisable. The Clinton Administration eventually found a balanced budget when Clinton began to watch his spending, especially in welfare programs.
Terrorism was on the rise beginning in 1993. America’s first terrorist attack from Al-Qaeda occurred on February 26th, 1993. Through the use of a bomb planted in a truck parked in an underground garage, the terrorist group attempted to destroy the World Trade Center’s Twin Towers. Although their plan wasn’t completely successful, the terrorists still managed to injure many people. This event seems to have been overshadowed by 9/11 and many people are unaware of the occurrence at all. Because of the lack of terrorist attacks in the past, no one knew who had carried out the bombing. Al-Qaeda members later took credit for their work, which led to the capture of four members and two guilty charges. Later in Clinton’s Administration was the Oklahoma City bombing. This 1995 bombing was similar to the World Trade Center event due to the use of a car bomb, however this attack was domestic; it was carried out by American civilians and was the most devastating act of terror in the U.S. at that time. The bombs had been made from plant fertilizer, were detonated in a truck that was parked in front of a federal office building, and had a 16-block blast radius. They killed 168 people and harmed even more, some of which were children. Regardless of the ages of the victims, the culprits did not care. They claimed that their actions were in response to the government's actions in the first Gulf War and America’s lack of involvement in Baghdad. The U.S. experienced another attack from Al-Qaeda members in 2000, on a Navy missile ship known as the U.S.S. Cole. A suicide bomber of the terrorist organization drove a small craft into the hull of the U.S.S. Cole and detonated over 400 pounds of explosives upon impact. Seven members of the crew were killed and many more were injured. All of these attacks foreshadowed 9/11 because they showed a disapproval of America’s constant interventions in the Middle East. Two of these events also showed that Middle Eastern organizations, such as Al-Qaeda, had a grudge against America and were on the rise.
Changes in Southeast Europe occurred and caused large amounts of conflict; Yugoslavia split into many smaller countries. Under Yugoslavia’s original ruler, Josip Tito, the nation allowed minorities to live freely. However, Tito never appointed a successor to himself and when he died Yugoslavia literally fell to pieces. It split into many sovereign nations, some of which are Bosnia, Kosovo, Serbia, and Croatia. These nations were extremely ethnically divided. Croatia was known as the safe haven for Christians and was regarded as the unwanted portion of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Kosovo were known for their high populations of muslim citizens. Croatia decided to break away and free itself from the Serbians. Serbia didn’t want to also lose Bosnia, a mostly Islamic region, which led to an invasion of the region. The Serbians conducted an “ethnic cleansing” led by their leader, Milosevic, against all Muslim inhabitants. A few years later, the same thing happened in Kosovo. These actions mirrored those of genocide. In an effort to cease these horrible events, the U.S. tried to rally support for the Muslims of these regions. However, the United Nations couldn’t offer enough support because it wouldn’t recognize the event. This led to NATO’s intervention in the form of a bombing campaign under Clinton’s Administration. This campaign was created to force the Serbians to back down, however they still continued on to “cleanse” Kosovo. In both events the U.S. became involved and forced the Serbians out. A similar massacre was occurring in Rwanda, Africa around the same time. The conflict was between two ethnic groups known as the Hutus and the Tutsis. Before Rwanda gained independence, the Tutsi people held the majority and the power. However, once independence was gained, they were overthrown by their rivals, the Hutus. The Hutus made the Tutsis suffer and attempted to rid Rwanda of them. Even through the Hutus were the ones in power, they blamed the Tutsis for the creation of poverty. The Hutus massacred many of the Tutsis and created an incredibly hostile environment between the two people. Unlike the conflicts in Kosovo and Bosnia, the United Nations and America failed to recognize the problem and aid the victims of the terrible situation. This failure to recognize the problem has created everlasting conflicts in those regions of the world. In addition, these events were examples of post WWII genocides. Even though the UN and America swore to never let any events similar to the Holocaust happen again, they let these conflicts occur unpunished and without intervention.
Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1993. This agreement was created between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. It allowed for an increase in free trade which would stimulate variation in products, increase exports to other nations, decrease tariffs on imported goods, lower prices, and increase in third-party sellers. This action proved that Clinton was a “new” Democrat, and appealed to the Democratic party because it made daily life easier. The Republicans also liked NAFTA because it promoted free trade and sidelined government regulations. Overall the benefits of the agreement appealed to both parties, however, NAFTA was also controversial in some ways. NAFTA began to outsource jobs to Mexico in efforts of obtained cheaper labor. This created a hatred of Mexican minorities because people believed they were stealing American jobs. In addition, Canada began to worry because America ceased to use them as a seller and began to import more goods from other countries. NAFTA’s original purpose was to create better working conditions and more jobs for Americans, however in some ways it was seen to do the opposite.
President Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives in 1998; Clinton was charged with obstruction of justice and perjury. The impeachment was mainly a result of the Lewinsky Scandal, a notorious sex scandal between the President and a White House intern. Monica Lewinsky, a young and recent graduate of Lewis and Clark College was hired during Clinton’s first term as an intern. At some point in time Lewinsky and Clinton had sexual relations, despite Clinton’s marriage to the first lady. Lewinsky had confided in a friend, Linda Tripp, regarding her relationship with the President. Tripp recorded her conversations with Lewinsky and later outed the two by delivering the recordings to an investigational group against Clinton’s administration known as the Independent Council in 1998. Clinton was charged with sexual harassment, however he ended the the case with a hefty settlement. Regardless of the settlement, the Republican party and the prosecuting attorneys analyzed Clinton’s womanizing past and used it against him in an attempt to seize his power. They found patterns of sexual activities between Clinton and other government employees. Many of these women were subpoenaed, including Monica Lewinsky. Clinton denied any sexual relations between him and Lewinsky, and became very defensive. This ultimately worsened his situation because people were not interested in his lies. Although he was impeached by the House, the Senate had a majority vote of not guilty on both counts. Clinton stayed in office. Surprisingly, Clinton had his wife’s support throughout the entire trial even though she had been cheated on.
The presidential election of 2000, between George W. Bush and Al Gore, was extremely close and proved to be very controversial. Bush was the republican candidate and the son of former president George H. W. Bush. Gore was Clinton’s vice president and the democratic candidate who eventually seceded from the election, only to reenter. Originally Gore held majority of the popular vote. However, in an attempt to distance himself from the scandals of Clinton’s administration, Gore came off as unlikeable and cold to the public. This was compared to Bush’s charismatic and friendly attitude, and proved to be unfavorable. The election was very confusing due to the media on election night. Many news stations, except FOX, prematurally assumed that Gore had won the election. This was because he held 266 electoral votes and Bush only had 246. However, at that point in time, Florida, which holds 25 electoral votes, had not been accounted for. Florida was the deciding factor in the election. That year Florida used a new “butterfly ballot” which caused confusion for many voters. Many users were unsettled by the ballot formatting and were unsure who they were actually voting for. After counting Florida’s votes, it appeared that Bush had won. However, since many votes were missing, Gore demanded a recount. The Republicans were unhappy with this demand and sued Al Gore for attempting to violate Florida’s election law. The case was taken to the Supreme Court and the court voted 5-4 against the recount. This allowed Bush to win the presidential election by default. Many people didn’t like this automatic win because it seemed as though the court appointed Bush rather than the people. Bush’s natural reaction was to become very defensive about the situation. This seemingly illegitimate election caused Bush to lose support and look too weak to win an election on his own.
Within the first nine months of Bush’s presidency a terrorist attack on New York City occurred. This well known event is now commonly referred to as 9/11. This Al-Qaeda attack consisted of the hijacking of four commercial jets, all on course to strike important United States buildings: the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the White House. Two planes successfully crashed into each of the World Trade Center’s Twin Towers, completely knocking the skyscrapers over. The third plane was also successful in its mission and crashed into the Pentagon. The last plane, United Airlines Flight 93, which was headed for the White House, crashed into a Pennsylvania field when the passengers attempted to regain control of the vessel. In total, almost 3,000 victims were killed from the attacks and the entire world was shocked. Bush reacted to the events by seeking revenge and creating a war against terrorism. He did this by invading Afghanistan to remove Al-Qaeda and the Taliban political party, and by focusing troops in Iraq. The U.S. was mainly involved in Iraq for oil purposes, however Bush made American involvement in Iraq seem as important as in Afghanistan. Bush did follow through on his intentions in Afghanistan because Al Qaeda was stationed there, however America’s involvement in Iraq was seen to be only for personal gain. The American public was completely vested in Bush’s actions and was outrageously angry because of 9/11. In hindsight it’s clear that Bush used the fear created from 9/11 to mask his illegitimate election and earn himself more support. This can be seen in his famous Bullhorn Speech, given at Ground Zero, which rallied Americans together to fight against the terrorists.
George W. Bush took America’s War on Terror to Iraq and Saddam Hussein through the manipulation of fear. Americans were so fearful of future terrorist attacks that they believed U.S. involvement in Iraq was as necessary as involvement in Afghanistan. This seemingly high threat kept Americans involved and created cooperation. One example of this manipulation was Bush’s exclamation that Iraq had nuclear weapons. He convinced Americans that yellowcake uranium was being purchased from Niger, Africa by the nation of Iraq. However, in the Valerie Plame case, it was proved by the CIA that there was no evidence of such purchases. An expose was later published in the New York Times by the investigator which denounced the Bush Administration for providing false information and intentionally lying/exaggerating when it came to the threat levels of Iraq. There is some controversy surrounding the situation since some believe that Valerie Plame herself was a covert CIA agent. In addition, after denouncing Bush and his administration, the identities of many CIA agents were exposed, putting their life and America’s national security at risk of an attack. In the end, the consequences of the Iraq war were grave. The U.S.’s unnecessary involvement led to the loss of 4,491 American and one million innocent Iraqi civilian lives, and an increase in national debt.
Many controversial events followed 9/11 and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. One of which was the passing of the U.S.A. P.A.T.R.I.O.T. Act. This stands for Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism. It was passed soon after 9/11 by Congress with little opposition because it made people feel safer and people didn’t want to experience another attack. It allowed for a multitude of means of investigation for combating terrorism and providing national security. Some of these means were electronic surveillance by recording and wiretapping phone calls and emails, National Security Letters sent to potential terrorism suspects which allowed the CIA search warrants without court orders, and enhanced interrogation techniques. These enhanced interrogation techniques essentially allowed the use of torture in order to retrieve any information possible out of captured Al-Qaeda members. Even though the Geneva Convention had outlawed the use of torture, enhanced interrogation was allowed in America. There was supposedly a line between enhanced interrogation and torture because the interrogation was in an attempt to gain information. Some of these techniques included waterboarding, hypothermia, insult slapping, forced strenuous positioning, and more. Such interrogations took place in hidden prisons that were created for such purposes. One of the most well known prisons was Abu Ghraib, located in Baghdad, which was notorious for ruthless torture techniques and countless human rights violations. Some of the actions of the U.S.A. P.A.T.R.I.O.T. act impacted America’s reputation. The use of electronic surveillance was seen as a violation of the fourth amendment because it disregarded the importance of privacy. This made America look like it couldn’t abide to one of its founding principles. Also, the use of enhanced interrogation violated the human rights that American avidly advocated for all in the name of retrieving possibly untrue information. In the end, it was decided that there is no line between enhanced interrogation and torture; as they’re both immoral. The civil libertarians did not believe in these actions, especially the use of electronic surveillance. They strictly believed in the abidance of the constitution and and the freedoms of individuals.
“No Child Left Behind” was a signature educational reform created by President Bush which dealt with the shortcomings of America’s education system and decreased student performance. The reform established many standards. These standards were created by the government and outlined everything students should know. Since the standards were very clear and straightforward, the allocation of funds for each schools was dependant on the school’s ability to teach them. If the student body of a school didn’t test well on the standard curriculum, then the school would not receive the same amount of funding as schools whose student body aced the test. In order for a school to remain in operation and properly financed they had to teach the standards strictly. If a school had six years of continuous failure, the government would either restructure it or shut it down. Although the rules were quite simple, the reform had many flaws. Firstly, it failed to promote forward thinking and creativity. Students were forced to simply memorize facts. Secondly, it didn’t account for students who are able to show their knowledge in ways other than standardized tests. Thirdly, students with disabilities or learning disorders were penalized because of their ineptitude to take formal tests. Despite the title of the reform, students who weren’t good test takers were left behind. Fourthly, the schools that needed the most help were received the least amount of money. It was almost impossible to make significant changes when many teachers had to be fired. Lastly, even if students were well prepared to society and real-world problems, they were still penalized for failing the standardized tests.
Bush took part in another very close presidential election in 2004, this time against John Kerry. Kerry was a Vietnam War veteran who had campaigned on the promise of ending the Iraq war. This was ironic because he had voted in favor of the war before he entered in the election, and had also wanted to fight Hussein at one point. For this reason Kerry was labeled as a “flip-flopper” since he never decided on a position when it came to the war. Kerry was a well honored war hero who had won the Purple Heart and numerous other awards, and who supported the “No Child Left Behind” act. However, Bush ended up winning the election for a few reasons. A veteran group had raised a large amount of suspicion regarding Kerry’s time in the war. They questioned his ideology, and whether or not he was actually a good soldier. These Veterans for Truth also called Kerry out for the numerous awards he received and provided substantial evidence that proved he had lied in order to win them. This made voters see Kerry as untrustworthy and undeserving. Bush was also already in position. The American people had a good amount of faith in his position as their president and didn’t oppose electing him for another term. Lastly, this election was known for sift boating. This was done by Bush, who portrayed himself as the war hero president even though he had never been active in a war, while Kerry served many years on duty. Even though there were many factors that made Bush seem like the favored candidate by a wide majority, the election ended up being very close.
One of America’s worst hurricanes in history, Hurricane Katrina, occurred during Bush’s presidency. This natural disaster wreaked havoc on New Orleans, Florida, Louisiana, and majority of the Gulf Coast, and proved to be immensely damaging and devastating. Almost 2,000 people died as a result of the storms, and millions were left without homes. Bush’s response to the situation sparked a large amount of controversy. His failure to immediately respond to the situation and the survivors relocated to the New Orleans Superdome caused many people to become angry with his administration. It’s widely assumed that his immediate attention was only focused on the Iraq war. It wasn’t until two days after the hurricane hit that Bush returned to Washington D.C. from his vacation in Texas. He had decided to spend more time celebrating John McCain’s birthday rather than dealing with the severe situation at hand. Unlike after 9/11 when Bush made his Bullhorn Speech at Ground Zero with the people of New York, Bush gave a speech about Katrina from a helicopter overlooking the destruction. He didn’t make the effort to visit the ruins or offer any sort of help to the suffering people. This made Bush seem very distant and too high above American citizens to help out. As a result, many of the survivors suffered from inadequate nourishment and some even died. This only added to the criticism against Bush. Bush did however pass a relief package for the survivors of the hurricane that cost about 10.5 billion dollars. Even though it was a grand gesture, he made it days after it was necessary and he had already lost large amounts of support. In addition, at that time he was also spending even more money (trillions) on a conflict far from American soil (in Iraq.) This made it seem as though he cared less and less about the American people and his home country. Bush was seen to instruct the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to deal with the Hurricane Katrina situation. However, since the agency had been downsized by the Republican influenced Congress, it couldn’t do much to help. Bush failed to properly instruct FEMA of its duties, and eventually the leader of the agency resigned. Those who defend Bush’s slow response to the horrors of the hurricane claim that Bush cared about the situation so much that he was waiting to determine the best response. Rather than immediately rushing to the site of the hurricane and risking the accusation of doing it as a publicity stunt, he kept his distance in order to deliberate and offer sincere help.
After Hurricane Katrina, in the 2006 midterm elections, the war-exhausted and frustrated state America was in, began to show. Bush, and the Republican Party in general, was not popular. It was a huge election and both the House of Representatives and the Senate were voted democratic. In addition many governorships and other elected positions were voted very liberally. This was due to Bush’s poor public image after his work, or lack-of, in Katrina, the continuation of the War in Iraq, the beginnings of the housing market crash, his defeat with Social Security, and his culture of corruption within the government due to minor scandals. Overall the Republicans were highly unfavored. A sweeping victory occurred for the democrats, and a revolutionary election occurred: Nancy Pelosi earned the title of first female Speaker of the House, and became the highest ranking female in the U.S. government. Overall the government became very divided. Although Congress kept Bush’s actions in check, the legislative and executive branches were not longer in agreement on anything.
The Bush Administration developed the budget surplus left from Clinton’s Administration into a large deficit. One of the largest contributing factors to this change was Bush’s increased funding of the Medicare Prescription Drug Program. This was his attempt at lowering the prices of insurance and prescription medicines for the elderly. Despite the program’s benevolence, it used more money than it saved. In an attempt to expand the program, the prices of insurance and prescription medicines actually raised, doing the opposite of what it was intended to do. The implementation of tax cuts by Bush also increased America’s deficit. This was because America was in a state of war, and military/government spending was through the roof. Although Bush and the Republican party believe in a small government, an environment for continuous spending was produced. With lower tax revenue for the government, it couldn’t keep up with the amount it was spending overseas. In all, Bush was spending far too much on the expansion of military efforts in Iraq. He considered military spending to be outside of budget spending, leading to an even larger deficit in America. Although it continued to expand, Bush continued to spend money.
At the end of Bush’s Presidency was the economic crash of 2008. Although Bush didn’t directly cause the crash, contrary to belief, he definitely contributed to the situation by spending enormous amounts of money on the Iraq war rather than fixing America’s economy. This crash is considered as severe as the Great Crash of 1929 based on a few factors: The first being the actions of government managed banks such as Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Countrywide Mortgage private banks. They had been offering adjustable rate mortgages to unqualified customers. These customers were not financially sound enough to ever pay back these loans. Rather than learning from the mistakes of Andrew Jackson’s small bank system, banks became overloaded because of the removal of the Glass Steagall Act for the Gramm Leach Bliley Act. Banks had become far too deregulated in an attempt to expand themselves, and a crash was bound to occur. Another factor was the bundling of mortgages by banks to the point where they no longer knew what to do with them. Financial transparency and loose regulations allowed for swaps between buyers and sellers, which ultimately aided the crash. The quick decline of the stock and housing market was also a large factor. Investors had created a speculative bubble, similar to the one created before the Great Crash, by continuing to invest out of the belief that the market will only get better. Another factor was the role of institutions such as Goldman-Sachs that overwrote financial guidelines in order to profit from the economic crash. Rather than helping the situation they attempting to take advantage of it. These actions questioned their reputations and led people to be wary of their trustworthiness.
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Newt Gingrich, a strict Republican, was elected Speaker of the House during President Clinton’s first mid-term elections. Previously Gingrich had been the Republican Party’s House Minority Leader. It was then that Gingrich proposed the “Contract With America.” This contract involved eight reforms promised by the Republican Party to be voted on by the House of Representatives. It essentially called for the continuation of Congress’ Republican rule in exchange for monitoring Clinton’s actions and avoiding an unbalanced budget. Naturally, as a result of this contract, conflict occurred. Clinton was a democrat and his ideology clashed with the Republicans in Congress over Clinton’s entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare. Clinton gave large sums of money to these programs in the name of the people, however the Republicans felt as though he was being frivolous with his spending. The Republicans have been known to favor small government and low taxes, hence their interest in less spending on these entitlement programs. Although Clinton passed a welfare reform in an attempt to calm the waters between him and Congress, the Republicans continued to disagree with Clinton’s ideals. Congress was eventually pushed to shut down the government for 27 days as an attempt to force Clinton to back down. Clinton persevered through the situation and gained a lot of popularity for doing so. He also lowered the Republican party’s rankings by blaming the shut down on them. The general public saw the Republicans as too extremely vested in their ideals and uncompromisable. The Clinton Administration eventually found a balanced budget when Clinton began to watch his spending, especially in welfare programs.
Terrorism was on the rise beginning in 1993. America’s first terrorist attack from Al-Qaeda occurred on February 26th, 1993. Through the use of a bomb planted in a truck parked in an underground garage, the terrorist group attempted to destroy the World Trade Center’s Twin Towers. Although their plan wasn’t completely successful, the terrorists still managed to injure many people. This event seems to have been overshadowed by 9/11 and many people are unaware of the occurrence at all. Because of the lack of terrorist attacks in the past, no one knew who had carried out the bombing. Al-Qaeda members later took credit for their work, which led to the capture of four members and two guilty charges. Later in Clinton’s Administration was the Oklahoma City bombing. This 1995 bombing was similar to the World Trade Center event due to the use of a car bomb, however this attack was domestic; it was carried out by American civilians and was the most devastating act of terror in the U.S. at that time. The bombs had been made from plant fertilizer, were detonated in a truck that was parked in front of a federal office building, and had a 16-block blast radius. They killed 168 people and harmed even more, some of which were children. Regardless of the ages of the victims, the culprits did not care. They claimed that their actions were in response to the government's actions in the first Gulf War and America’s lack of involvement in Baghdad. The U.S. experienced another attack from Al-Qaeda members in 2000, on a Navy missile ship known as the U.S.S. Cole. A suicide bomber of the terrorist organization drove a small craft into the hull of the U.S.S. Cole and detonated over 400 pounds of explosives upon impact. Seven members of the crew were killed and many more were injured. All of these attacks foreshadowed 9/11 because they showed a disapproval of America’s constant interventions in the Middle East. Two of these events also showed that Middle Eastern organizations, such as Al-Qaeda, had a grudge against America and were on the rise.
Changes in Southeast Europe occurred and caused large amounts of conflict; Yugoslavia split into many smaller countries. Under Yugoslavia’s original ruler, Josip Tito, the nation allowed minorities to live freely. However, Tito never appointed a successor to himself and when he died Yugoslavia literally fell to pieces. It split into many sovereign nations, some of which are Bosnia, Kosovo, Serbia, and Croatia. These nations were extremely ethnically divided. Croatia was known as the safe haven for Christians and was regarded as the unwanted portion of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Kosovo were known for their high populations of muslim citizens. Croatia decided to break away and free itself from the Serbians. Serbia didn’t want to also lose Bosnia, a mostly Islamic region, which led to an invasion of the region. The Serbians conducted an “ethnic cleansing” led by their leader, Milosevic, against all Muslim inhabitants. A few years later, the same thing happened in Kosovo. These actions mirrored those of genocide. In an effort to cease these horrible events, the U.S. tried to rally support for the Muslims of these regions. However, the United Nations couldn’t offer enough support because it wouldn’t recognize the event. This led to NATO’s intervention in the form of a bombing campaign under Clinton’s Administration. This campaign was created to force the Serbians to back down, however they still continued on to “cleanse” Kosovo. In both events the U.S. became involved and forced the Serbians out. A similar massacre was occurring in Rwanda, Africa around the same time. The conflict was between two ethnic groups known as the Hutus and the Tutsis. Before Rwanda gained independence, the Tutsi people held the majority and the power. However, once independence was gained, they were overthrown by their rivals, the Hutus. The Hutus made the Tutsis suffer and attempted to rid Rwanda of them. Even through the Hutus were the ones in power, they blamed the Tutsis for the creation of poverty. The Hutus massacred many of the Tutsis and created an incredibly hostile environment between the two people. Unlike the conflicts in Kosovo and Bosnia, the United Nations and America failed to recognize the problem and aid the victims of the terrible situation. This failure to recognize the problem has created everlasting conflicts in those regions of the world. In addition, these events were examples of post WWII genocides. Even though the UN and America swore to never let any events similar to the Holocaust happen again, they let these conflicts occur unpunished and without intervention.
Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1993. This agreement was created between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. It allowed for an increase in free trade which would stimulate variation in products, increase exports to other nations, decrease tariffs on imported goods, lower prices, and increase in third-party sellers. This action proved that Clinton was a “new” Democrat, and appealed to the Democratic party because it made daily life easier. The Republicans also liked NAFTA because it promoted free trade and sidelined government regulations. Overall the benefits of the agreement appealed to both parties, however, NAFTA was also controversial in some ways. NAFTA began to outsource jobs to Mexico in efforts of obtained cheaper labor. This created a hatred of Mexican minorities because people believed they were stealing American jobs. In addition, Canada began to worry because America ceased to use them as a seller and began to import more goods from other countries. NAFTA’s original purpose was to create better working conditions and more jobs for Americans, however in some ways it was seen to do the opposite.
President Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives in 1998; Clinton was charged with obstruction of justice and perjury. The impeachment was mainly a result of the Lewinsky Scandal, a notorious sex scandal between the President and a White House intern. Monica Lewinsky, a young and recent graduate of Lewis and Clark College was hired during Clinton’s first term as an intern. At some point in time Lewinsky and Clinton had sexual relations, despite Clinton’s marriage to the first lady. Lewinsky had confided in a friend, Linda Tripp, regarding her relationship with the President. Tripp recorded her conversations with Lewinsky and later outed the two by delivering the recordings to an investigational group against Clinton’s administration known as the Independent Council in 1998. Clinton was charged with sexual harassment, however he ended the the case with a hefty settlement. Regardless of the settlement, the Republican party and the prosecuting attorneys analyzed Clinton’s womanizing past and used it against him in an attempt to seize his power. They found patterns of sexual activities between Clinton and other government employees. Many of these women were subpoenaed, including Monica Lewinsky. Clinton denied any sexual relations between him and Lewinsky, and became very defensive. This ultimately worsened his situation because people were not interested in his lies. Although he was impeached by the House, the Senate had a majority vote of not guilty on both counts. Clinton stayed in office. Surprisingly, Clinton had his wife’s support throughout the entire trial even though she had been cheated on.
The presidential election of 2000, between George W. Bush and Al Gore, was extremely close and proved to be very controversial. Bush was the republican candidate and the son of former president George H. W. Bush. Gore was Clinton’s vice president and the democratic candidate who eventually seceded from the election, only to reenter. Originally Gore held majority of the popular vote. However, in an attempt to distance himself from the scandals of Clinton’s administration, Gore came off as unlikeable and cold to the public. This was compared to Bush’s charismatic and friendly attitude, and proved to be unfavorable. The election was very confusing due to the media on election night. Many news stations, except FOX, prematurally assumed that Gore had won the election. This was because he held 266 electoral votes and Bush only had 246. However, at that point in time, Florida, which holds 25 electoral votes, had not been accounted for. Florida was the deciding factor in the election. That year Florida used a new “butterfly ballot” which caused confusion for many voters. Many users were unsettled by the ballot formatting and were unsure who they were actually voting for. After counting Florida’s votes, it appeared that Bush had won. However, since many votes were missing, Gore demanded a recount. The Republicans were unhappy with this demand and sued Al Gore for attempting to violate Florida’s election law. The case was taken to the Supreme Court and the court voted 5-4 against the recount. This allowed Bush to win the presidential election by default. Many people didn’t like this automatic win because it seemed as though the court appointed Bush rather than the people. Bush’s natural reaction was to become very defensive about the situation. This seemingly illegitimate election caused Bush to lose support and look too weak to win an election on his own.
Within the first nine months of Bush’s presidency a terrorist attack on New York City occurred. This well known event is now commonly referred to as 9/11. This Al-Qaeda attack consisted of the hijacking of four commercial jets, all on course to strike important United States buildings: the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the White House. Two planes successfully crashed into each of the World Trade Center’s Twin Towers, completely knocking the skyscrapers over. The third plane was also successful in its mission and crashed into the Pentagon. The last plane, United Airlines Flight 93, which was headed for the White House, crashed into a Pennsylvania field when the passengers attempted to regain control of the vessel. In total, almost 3,000 victims were killed from the attacks and the entire world was shocked. Bush reacted to the events by seeking revenge and creating a war against terrorism. He did this by invading Afghanistan to remove Al-Qaeda and the Taliban political party, and by focusing troops in Iraq. The U.S. was mainly involved in Iraq for oil purposes, however Bush made American involvement in Iraq seem as important as in Afghanistan. Bush did follow through on his intentions in Afghanistan because Al Qaeda was stationed there, however America’s involvement in Iraq was seen to be only for personal gain. The American public was completely vested in Bush’s actions and was outrageously angry because of 9/11. In hindsight it’s clear that Bush used the fear created from 9/11 to mask his illegitimate election and earn himself more support. This can be seen in his famous Bullhorn Speech, given at Ground Zero, which rallied Americans together to fight against the terrorists.
George W. Bush took America’s War on Terror to Iraq and Saddam Hussein through the manipulation of fear. Americans were so fearful of future terrorist attacks that they believed U.S. involvement in Iraq was as necessary as involvement in Afghanistan. This seemingly high threat kept Americans involved and created cooperation. One example of this manipulation was Bush’s exclamation that Iraq had nuclear weapons. He convinced Americans that yellowcake uranium was being purchased from Niger, Africa by the nation of Iraq. However, in the Valerie Plame case, it was proved by the CIA that there was no evidence of such purchases. An expose was later published in the New York Times by the investigator which denounced the Bush Administration for providing false information and intentionally lying/exaggerating when it came to the threat levels of Iraq. There is some controversy surrounding the situation since some believe that Valerie Plame herself was a covert CIA agent. In addition, after denouncing Bush and his administration, the identities of many CIA agents were exposed, putting their life and America’s national security at risk of an attack. In the end, the consequences of the Iraq war were grave. The U.S.’s unnecessary involvement led to the loss of 4,491 American and one million innocent Iraqi civilian lives, and an increase in national debt.
Many controversial events followed 9/11 and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. One of which was the passing of the U.S.A. P.A.T.R.I.O.T. Act. This stands for Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism. It was passed soon after 9/11 by Congress with little opposition because it made people feel safer and people didn’t want to experience another attack. It allowed for a multitude of means of investigation for combating terrorism and providing national security. Some of these means were electronic surveillance by recording and wiretapping phone calls and emails, National Security Letters sent to potential terrorism suspects which allowed the CIA search warrants without court orders, and enhanced interrogation techniques. These enhanced interrogation techniques essentially allowed the use of torture in order to retrieve any information possible out of captured Al-Qaeda members. Even though the Geneva Convention had outlawed the use of torture, enhanced interrogation was allowed in America. There was supposedly a line between enhanced interrogation and torture because the interrogation was in an attempt to gain information. Some of these techniques included waterboarding, hypothermia, insult slapping, forced strenuous positioning, and more. Such interrogations took place in hidden prisons that were created for such purposes. One of the most well known prisons was Abu Ghraib, located in Baghdad, which was notorious for ruthless torture techniques and countless human rights violations. Some of the actions of the U.S.A. P.A.T.R.I.O.T. act impacted America’s reputation. The use of electronic surveillance was seen as a violation of the fourth amendment because it disregarded the importance of privacy. This made America look like it couldn’t abide to one of its founding principles. Also, the use of enhanced interrogation violated the human rights that American avidly advocated for all in the name of retrieving possibly untrue information. In the end, it was decided that there is no line between enhanced interrogation and torture; as they’re both immoral. The civil libertarians did not believe in these actions, especially the use of electronic surveillance. They strictly believed in the abidance of the constitution and and the freedoms of individuals.
“No Child Left Behind” was a signature educational reform created by President Bush which dealt with the shortcomings of America’s education system and decreased student performance. The reform established many standards. These standards were created by the government and outlined everything students should know. Since the standards were very clear and straightforward, the allocation of funds for each schools was dependant on the school’s ability to teach them. If the student body of a school didn’t test well on the standard curriculum, then the school would not receive the same amount of funding as schools whose student body aced the test. In order for a school to remain in operation and properly financed they had to teach the standards strictly. If a school had six years of continuous failure, the government would either restructure it or shut it down. Although the rules were quite simple, the reform had many flaws. Firstly, it failed to promote forward thinking and creativity. Students were forced to simply memorize facts. Secondly, it didn’t account for students who are able to show their knowledge in ways other than standardized tests. Thirdly, students with disabilities or learning disorders were penalized because of their ineptitude to take formal tests. Despite the title of the reform, students who weren’t good test takers were left behind. Fourthly, the schools that needed the most help were received the least amount of money. It was almost impossible to make significant changes when many teachers had to be fired. Lastly, even if students were well prepared to society and real-world problems, they were still penalized for failing the standardized tests.
Bush took part in another very close presidential election in 2004, this time against John Kerry. Kerry was a Vietnam War veteran who had campaigned on the promise of ending the Iraq war. This was ironic because he had voted in favor of the war before he entered in the election, and had also wanted to fight Hussein at one point. For this reason Kerry was labeled as a “flip-flopper” since he never decided on a position when it came to the war. Kerry was a well honored war hero who had won the Purple Heart and numerous other awards, and who supported the “No Child Left Behind” act. However, Bush ended up winning the election for a few reasons. A veteran group had raised a large amount of suspicion regarding Kerry’s time in the war. They questioned his ideology, and whether or not he was actually a good soldier. These Veterans for Truth also called Kerry out for the numerous awards he received and provided substantial evidence that proved he had lied in order to win them. This made voters see Kerry as untrustworthy and undeserving. Bush was also already in position. The American people had a good amount of faith in his position as their president and didn’t oppose electing him for another term. Lastly, this election was known for sift boating. This was done by Bush, who portrayed himself as the war hero president even though he had never been active in a war, while Kerry served many years on duty. Even though there were many factors that made Bush seem like the favored candidate by a wide majority, the election ended up being very close.
One of America’s worst hurricanes in history, Hurricane Katrina, occurred during Bush’s presidency. This natural disaster wreaked havoc on New Orleans, Florida, Louisiana, and majority of the Gulf Coast, and proved to be immensely damaging and devastating. Almost 2,000 people died as a result of the storms, and millions were left without homes. Bush’s response to the situation sparked a large amount of controversy. His failure to immediately respond to the situation and the survivors relocated to the New Orleans Superdome caused many people to become angry with his administration. It’s widely assumed that his immediate attention was only focused on the Iraq war. It wasn’t until two days after the hurricane hit that Bush returned to Washington D.C. from his vacation in Texas. He had decided to spend more time celebrating John McCain’s birthday rather than dealing with the severe situation at hand. Unlike after 9/11 when Bush made his Bullhorn Speech at Ground Zero with the people of New York, Bush gave a speech about Katrina from a helicopter overlooking the destruction. He didn’t make the effort to visit the ruins or offer any sort of help to the suffering people. This made Bush seem very distant and too high above American citizens to help out. As a result, many of the survivors suffered from inadequate nourishment and some even died. This only added to the criticism against Bush. Bush did however pass a relief package for the survivors of the hurricane that cost about 10.5 billion dollars. Even though it was a grand gesture, he made it days after it was necessary and he had already lost large amounts of support. In addition, at that time he was also spending even more money (trillions) on a conflict far from American soil (in Iraq.) This made it seem as though he cared less and less about the American people and his home country. Bush was seen to instruct the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to deal with the Hurricane Katrina situation. However, since the agency had been downsized by the Republican influenced Congress, it couldn’t do much to help. Bush failed to properly instruct FEMA of its duties, and eventually the leader of the agency resigned. Those who defend Bush’s slow response to the horrors of the hurricane claim that Bush cared about the situation so much that he was waiting to determine the best response. Rather than immediately rushing to the site of the hurricane and risking the accusation of doing it as a publicity stunt, he kept his distance in order to deliberate and offer sincere help.
After Hurricane Katrina, in the 2006 midterm elections, the war-exhausted and frustrated state America was in, began to show. Bush, and the Republican Party in general, was not popular. It was a huge election and both the House of Representatives and the Senate were voted democratic. In addition many governorships and other elected positions were voted very liberally. This was due to Bush’s poor public image after his work, or lack-of, in Katrina, the continuation of the War in Iraq, the beginnings of the housing market crash, his defeat with Social Security, and his culture of corruption within the government due to minor scandals. Overall the Republicans were highly unfavored. A sweeping victory occurred for the democrats, and a revolutionary election occurred: Nancy Pelosi earned the title of first female Speaker of the House, and became the highest ranking female in the U.S. government. Overall the government became very divided. Although Congress kept Bush’s actions in check, the legislative and executive branches were not longer in agreement on anything.
The Bush Administration developed the budget surplus left from Clinton’s Administration into a large deficit. One of the largest contributing factors to this change was Bush’s increased funding of the Medicare Prescription Drug Program. This was his attempt at lowering the prices of insurance and prescription medicines for the elderly. Despite the program’s benevolence, it used more money than it saved. In an attempt to expand the program, the prices of insurance and prescription medicines actually raised, doing the opposite of what it was intended to do. The implementation of tax cuts by Bush also increased America’s deficit. This was because America was in a state of war, and military/government spending was through the roof. Although Bush and the Republican party believe in a small government, an environment for continuous spending was produced. With lower tax revenue for the government, it couldn’t keep up with the amount it was spending overseas. In all, Bush was spending far too much on the expansion of military efforts in Iraq. He considered military spending to be outside of budget spending, leading to an even larger deficit in America. Although it continued to expand, Bush continued to spend money.
At the end of Bush’s Presidency was the economic crash of 2008. Although Bush didn’t directly cause the crash, contrary to belief, he definitely contributed to the situation by spending enormous amounts of money on the Iraq war rather than fixing America’s economy. This crash is considered as severe as the Great Crash of 1929 based on a few factors: The first being the actions of government managed banks such as Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Countrywide Mortgage private banks. They had been offering adjustable rate mortgages to unqualified customers. These customers were not financially sound enough to ever pay back these loans. Rather than learning from the mistakes of Andrew Jackson’s small bank system, banks became overloaded because of the removal of the Glass Steagall Act for the Gramm Leach Bliley Act. Banks had become far too deregulated in an attempt to expand themselves, and a crash was bound to occur. Another factor was the bundling of mortgages by banks to the point where they no longer knew what to do with them. Financial transparency and loose regulations allowed for swaps between buyers and sellers, which ultimately aided the crash. The quick decline of the stock and housing market was also a large factor. Investors had created a speculative bubble, similar to the one created before the Great Crash, by continuing to invest out of the belief that the market will only get better. Another factor was the role of institutions such as Goldman-Sachs that overwrote financial guidelines in order to profit from the economic crash. Rather than helping the situation they attempting to take advantage of it. These actions questioned their reputations and led people to be wary of their trustworthiness.
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